Determination of Sodium Thiopental Using Gold Nanoparticles

Determination of Sodium Thiopental victimization Gold NanoparticlesDevelopment of a new commentimetrical order for the endeavor of atomic number 11 thiopento turf outbital atomic number 11 atomic number 11 sodium using gold nanoparticlesSodium thiopentobarbital sodium (sodium pentothal) is in a group of drugs called barbiturates.this barbiturate commonly utilize anesthetic induction agents in man and animals because recovery is rapid and it has the advantage of having very little or no side effects1.It is utilise for intensive-care patients with head injuries to control convulsions and reduce increase intracranial pressure2. As a resultmonitoring of the blood serum compactnesss is important in this patient population.several(prenominal) analytical procedures have been reported for the quantitative determination of thiopental. Among these high-performance smooth-spoken chromatography (HPLC) are more popular. HPLC assays are not completely reliable, and do not have the short process- succession required in most of the above-mentioned indications3, 4. another(prenominal) methods are available for determining thiopental including stripping voltammetry5,membrane demodulators6,capacitive chemical sensor 7,gas chromatography (GC)8,spectrophotometric and spectrophotofluorometric9, 10. Donald et al11reported that, after the uncouth 4.8 mg/kg induction doses, thiopental concent symmetryn in serum as a function of time varies amid 10 mg/L to 25 mg/L during 50h.As stated before most of these currently used methods for sodium thiopental signal espial usually need expensive and complicated instruments and are time-consuming, making on-the-spot(prenominal) and historical-time thiopental espial difficult. Therefore, it is important to develop a simple(a) reliable and highly sensitive method for on-site and real-time detection of sodium thiopental.Recently, gold nanoparticles (NPs) explored for alloylic NP-based colorimetric detection have attracted goodish attention due to biocompatibility, stability, and high extinction coefficients12. gold nanoparticles sacrifice size-dependent optic properties owing to the summon plasma resonance(SPR)12. The color of the colloidal Au NPs washbasin be quickly and precisely replaced via accumulation of Au NPs.Au NPs were widely apply in colorimetric detection of several analytes such as protein, DNA, metal ions and small molecules .In this study, we used gold nanoparticles as a colorimetric probe for sensitive and selective detection of sodium thiopental. The gold nanoparticles were wide-awake using the classical turn method 12.thiopental on the climb up of AuNPs displaced the stabilizing turn ions because thiol group of sodium thiopental tends to readily adsorb onto the surface of colloidal gold via chemisorptions-type interactions. The thiopental capped Au NPs were stable at basic and neutral conditions .Puntes et al 13 have studied the stability of cationic gold nanoparticle bioconjugates as a function of pH and the presence of turn in re ascendant. The pH of an aqueous solution of thiopental-Au NPs was varied by prepare add upition of citrate buffer. the thiopental-Au NPs jackpot be aggregated by adding authoritative amounts of citrate buffer due to the electrostatic attraction among amino group group contained in thiopental molecular and citrate ion on the surface of Au NPs, the amino group of the thiopental would be positively aerated at the given pH value and they would therefore interact electrostatically with the negative scoots of the citrate molecules. Thus forcing the appeal of the conjugated Au NPs and later resulting in the color change from wine red to purple or blue color.So that we detected it by UVVis spectrophotometer and paptode techniques and contrast both methods.First time at 2004 paptode was developed in Dr. Abbaspour group for speciation of iron(II) and iron(III) and the full range pH monitoring 14. Then it was used for the determination of dopamine 15, hydrazine 16. In paptode, effected atbed -scanner (as a nondestructive detector) was used to acquire the analytical parameters for quantitative determination of analyte that occurs via colorimetric reaction. The estimated re ection density, as an analytical parameter, is obtained from an area of the sensing zone of drifter using the average Red (R), Green (G) and Blue (B) channel. Degrees of the color of the descry are found to be proportional to the meanness of the assayedanalyte.Experimental contributionReagentsHAuCl4.3H2O, trisodium citrate and citric acid were purchased from Sigma. Thiopental was obtained from Biochemie (Kundl, Austria) and zinc sulfate purchased from Fluka all(prenominal) solutions were prepared with ultrapure waterApparatus and softwareThe colorimetric study of NPs were performed by means of a Shimadzu 1601PC UVVis spectrophotometer (Kyoto, Japan)from 300 to 700 nm. Also a law scanner were used to record the color cha nges in paptode technique. The paptode Cells were built by creation of the holes (i.d 1.5 cm) in the sheet of plexiglas (thickness 0.9 cm). We used by photoshop Cs6 software to convert the put down pictures of color of cells to RGB (Red, Green and Blue) and L*a*b data. The morphology and size of the nanoparticles were characterized by a transmission electron microscope (TEM baby-sit CM10 Philips). The X-Ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were obtained by using a D8 ADVANCE type (BRUKER-Germany) with Cu-K beam (= 0.1542 nm). Powder XRD patterns were taken in 0.02 steps at 1 s per step. All the experiments were carried out at room temperature(25 2 C)Synthesis of citrate-stabilized Au nanocrystalsNanoparticles of noble metal were prepared by classical citrate method12.the10ml of 0.014M of trisodium citrate dehydrate solution was added quickly to the 100ml of boiling solution of 0.5mM of HAuCl4.3H2O beneath charismatic stirring. The stirring was continued until a dark red color was si ght (around 20 min) and the maximum absorbance of AuNPs solution was centered at 520 nm taste preparationFresh human blood judges (2.0 mL) were obtained from volunteers of the local hospital. After allow sample stand for 60 min at room temperature we centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was used as the source of the serum. We used zinc sulfate method as a deproteinization technique we vortex-mix for 10s of the 10ml of serum sample and 150mg zinc sulfate, then we centrifuged the mixture at 3000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant, which excluded protein, was used for further analysis.Procedures for the detection of sodium thiopentalIn a classifiable detection of sodium thiopental, different amounts of thiopental solution were added to the above XmlAu NPs solutions at room temperature. we proceeded to study the conduct of the conjugated system by modifying the pH . To investigate the effect of pH of the buffer solutions on thiopental detection, 0.5 mL of 0.1 M buffer sol ution (citric buffer solution in the pH range of 3.06.0 ) was added in mixture of thiopental and Au NPs solution. The obvious color change was observed with the naked eye and the absorbance spectra and scanning images of the solution were recorded 1 min after the sum of citrate buffer. In spectroscopic analysis technique ,The concentration of sodium thiopental was quantified by the absorption ratio (A670/A520).Results and discussionCitrate was chosen as the stabilizer for AuNPs because it is negatively charged, and can act as a stabilizingagent to disperse AuNPs in aqueous solutions. The Au NPs after synthesis showed a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band at 405 nm (Fig. 1a). the addition of sodium thiopental doesnt led to a color change of Au NPsin ultrapure water, although the thiol group of sodium thiopental tends to readily adsorb onto the surface of Au NPs.The pH of AuNPs solution in present of sodium thiopental is 10.2 and Puntes et al13reportedthat the presence of charged m olecules insolution may induce NPs aggregation by bridging particlestogether. It was observed that multiple electrostatic interactions between the conjugates mediated by cross-linking species led to an effective strong bond and consequently to irreversible aggregation and precipitation. So that at the given pH value , charge of thiopental can be change and thenthe color of the colloidal thiopental-Au NPs can be changed to blue (broad band above 600 nm).*Scrutiny of pH/Concentrate diagrams of citrate and thiopental shows that at the pH of between 5 to 7 , charge of citrate and thiopental can benegative and neutralfig S1. But when sodium thiopental add to AuNPs solution, the S- group in the sodium thiopental provides a strong comparison for gold. So that orbital of thiol group of thiopentalinvolved for Au NPs surface and when pH change from 10.2 to 6 , the amino group of the thiopental would be accepted H + and get positive charge. In present of excesscitrate at the pH of 6 , thiopen tal-AuNPscan be aggregated via electrostatic attraction between the citrate ions and the thiopental. So that in this study we used citrate buffer solutionfor control of pH( in the pH range of 3.06.0) and source of citrate (as a bridging factor). The aggregation appliance of Au NPs is illustrated in Fig. 1.Optimization pH and timewe proceeded to study the behavior of the conjugated system by modifying the pH( 7.1-5.4). The pH of an aqueous solution of0.00001M thiopental capped AuNPs was varied by direct addition of 0.05Mcitrate buffer to the solution andThe UV-Vis spectrum wasmonitored and the extinction ratio of absorbance at 600 nm to 420 nm (A600/A410) is plotted against the pH inFig. 3A. The thiopental-capped Au NPs were stable at basic and neutral conditions.When the pH of the solution was below the 6.4 , Au NPs agglomerated.the aggregation was solely due to the bridging citrate between the amine functionality.Onthe basis of this optimization experiment, the pH was set to 6.2 t o achieve a best aggregationFig. 3A.When the pH was decreased immediately from 5.4 after the addition of the citrate buffer scatteringwasobserved.Fig. 3A illustrates theabsorption spectra of AuNPs at different pH value.At the concentration of sodium thiopental as 0.00001M, the extinction ratio ofA650/A520 at room temperatureexhibited a rapid increaseduring the first 1.5min,then increased gradually from 1 min to 18 min and then remained constantFig 3B. Thus, the detection time was chosen as 20 min.We choseto use the absorbance ratio at 500 and 600 wavelengths to quantify thecolor of the system,thecolor change at various sodium thiopental concentrations were monitored byUV/Vis spectroscopyfig4A.Quantitative analysis was performed by monitoringthe absorbanceat 1minute after the addition of citrate buffer Fig4B .The linear range, detection limit and reproducibilityof the method were evaluated under the bestconditions.Thecalibration wriggle for sodium thiopental was linear in two range s of( . To and to ) with correlation coefficient coefficients 0.9981 and0.9979, respectively. The Experimental detection limit has been obtained as 2M. The relative threadbare deviation(R.S.D.) for1.0108M thiopental measurementwas2.7% (n=11)Fig4A .when thiopental concentrationincreased above 0.0005M, scattering was observed fig3B because thiopental polymerized white citrate molecule. So that we tried paptode techniques to resolve thisproblemFigS1. Although the higher concentrations of sodium thiopental was determined by paptode, but the limit of detection was quite high (LOD 10 M) in comparison to the spectrophotometric method. The detailed procedure for sodium thiopental determination by the paptode method is explained in supporting information.To test the selectivity of the above method for sodium thiopental, we testing the response of the assay to about potential interference species and structurally similar to the sodium thiopental such as.in optimum condition and different concentration .the results areshown in bar diagramFigure 8 .red barsexhibit Color changes of the solution in thepresence of various interference species at concentrations of 10mMand bluebars exhibit Color changes in presence ofinterference species at real concentration in serum ( 1M cysteine, 2M), The maximum absorption wavelength of AuNPs did notchange in the presence of the tried and true species, Except for cysteineat concentrations of 10mM. Therefore, AuNPs had good selectivity for sodium thiopental detection in optimum condition in the serum.Colorimetric detection of sodium thiopental in serumTo validate the reliability of the proposed method for sodium thiopental detection in real samples, The unknown amounts of thiopental were added to thethree different human serum samples before samplespre-treatment .Detecting of sodium thiopental in a serum is not easy because of the serum constituents.the color of the Au NPs was not stable by the addition of the blank serum. So that it m ustdiluted ten times. As regardsthe calibration curve for detection thiopental by this methodand dilution of serum and thiopental concentration in serum as a function of time varies after the usual 4.8 mg/kg induction doses , we can detect sodium thiopental in human serumbefore 3 hour.samples were determined by both the AuNP-based method reported herein and the standard addition method. Satisfactory results and recoveries as shown in Table 2. The satisfactory results obtained indicate that proposed sensors can be applied to real sample assays.1 H. Russo, F. Bressolle, Clinical Pharmacokinetics, 35 (1998) 95-134.2 R.I. Katz, J.T. Skeen, C. Quartararo, P.J. Poppers, Anesthesia Analgesia, 66 (1987) 1328-1330.3 H. Russo, J.L. Allaz, F. Bressolle, Journal of Chromatography B Biomedical Sciences and Applications, 694 (1997) 239-245.4 G. Coppa, R. Testa, A.M. Gambini, I. Testa, M. Tocchini, A.R. Bonfigli, Clinica Chimica Acta, 305 (2001) 41-45.5 A.M.M. Ali, O.A. Farghaly, M.A. Ghandour, Analytica Chimica Acta, 412 (2000) 99-110.6 N.M.H. Rizk, A.-H.M. Othman, Analytical Sciences, 21 (2005) 107-110.7 M. Najafi, A.A. Baghbanan, Electroanalysis, 24 (2012) 1236-1242.8 W.R. Klpmann, Z. Anal. Chem., 311 (1982) 409.9 G.A. Saleh, Talanta, 46 (1998) 111-121.10 P.G. Dayton, J.M. Perel, M.A. Landrau, L. Brand, L.C. Mark, biochemical Pharmacology, 16 (1967) 2321-2336.11 D. Jung, M. Mayersohn, D. Perrier, Clinical Chemistry, 27 (1981) 113-115.12 M.-C. Daniel, D. Astruc, chemical substance Reviews, 104 (2004) 293-346.13 I. Ojea-Jimenez, V. Puntes, Journal of the American Chemical Society, 131 (2009) 13320-13327.14 A. Abbaspour, M.A. Mehrgardi, A. Noori, M.A. Kamyabi, A. Khalafi-Nezhad, M.N. Soltani Rad, Sensors and Actuators B Chemical, 113 (2006) 857-865.15 A. Abbaspour, A. Khajehzadeh, A. Ghaffarinejad, Analyst, 134 (2009) 1692-1698.16 A. Abbaspour, E. Mirahmadi, A. Khajehzadeh, Analytical Methods, 2 (2010) 349-353.

Copper: Structure, Functions and Chemistry

bull Structure, Functions and ChemistryCOPPER(I) pig bed has vie a signifi earth-closett quality in the history of human civilization, he was the early coatlic portion produced on a larger scale and apply for virtual(a) purposes. Copper has been employ by humans since ancient times, in the oldest antiquity and just about indisputablely soon aft(prenominal) gold and argint. Archeologists discovered objects of this metal da can buoyg from 8700 BC, the point of blur, much tougher and cheaper than gold and argint, expand the uses and the catch up with of weapons and divers(a) utensils (especially plows), thus make a significant jump in history the transition from the cavity Age to the Bronze Age. Copper is one of the chemical elements of the base, a metal which pure has orange-red color and has a high electrical and thermal conductivity. classifiable color of the horseshit, reddish, has make as first people to use him in creating jewelry and tools. Currently it is ut ilize to create a variety of products (cables, cookery pots and pans, tubes and pipes, car radiators, etc..), and pigment and preservative for paper, paint, textile and wood. Can likewise be used in various combinations, with zinc produce brass and with tin produces bronze .In the Earths crust, fuzz reserves are estimated to be active 70 parts per billion, which puts them among the lift four of the Earth reserves. Copper is set in its natural state, but most are in the mineral reserves, of which the most important are chalcopyrite and bornite. From the point of view of the bed cover in nature, crap may be instal either in the native formula (pure or bonded) or be in the form of compounds or minerals. After existing information, the hair was discovered in the grade 6000 BC, by a people living in Turkestan or on the southern slope of the Caucasus. From here emerged in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Crete and eventually in Europe. settle after the old strapper objects build, it ca n be said that this metal has emerged in Egypt 5,000 years BC and then, after a millennium, in the land between the Tigris and Euphrates, where the Sumerian civilization developed. In Egypt, on the pharaoh time Turmes, the bruiser was exploited in Sinai Peninsula and was k without delayn as Komt.Copper ores used by ancient peoples came from Asia Minor and the Cypru. Also, the great philosopher of antiquity, Aristotle (330 BC) wrote that in India there is a sorting of blur that can not distinguish gold than by pitch (it been easier). The first large deposits of squealer ore were discovered slightly 3000 BC, in the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean.There is evidence that the Greeks and then the Romans extracted slob from Cyprus (since 1500 BC). When the Romans conquered Cyprus, the Romans brought papal bull almost entirely from Cyprus, so they called him, Cyprium, metal of Cyprus, then shortened to cyprium and later at cuprum.In conspiracy America, the findings showed th at there were copper objects from 500 BC along the north chute of Peru. A victimisation in copper processing was done when the Inca empire fell, it being conquered by the Spanish in the 1500s. Regarding the United States, the first copper mine is k this instantn in Connecticut (Branby) in 1705, followed by daddy (Lancaster) in 1732. However, production of copper objects was based on copper merchandise from Chile until 1844, when were discovered large deposits of copper ore, high quality, around Lake Superior. With the development of techniques for processing by the late 1800s, began exploiting the copper ore trim down quality in large mines open in the western United States.The biggest piece of main(a) copper found in nature weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 in the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan, USA. Copper- representing minerals, such as chalcopyrite, Azurite, malachite, copper is present in the earths crust at a concentration of 50 parts per million, and constituted 0.01% of the. almost of copper removed from the mine is in the form of compounds such as sulfides or sulfates. Today, copper ores (copper sulfides, oxides and carbonates) are found in the USA and Canada, as substantially as several former(a) places (in more than 50 nations). Should be illustrious, however, somewhat half of the amount of copper in the world comes dinChile and the United States. brand-new Mexico, Nevada, and Montana are states that give the largest amount of copper (about 98 percent) in the United States.World production of copper is about 12 million tons per year and the reserves are about 300 million tons, and is projected to be only for another 25 years. Strongest copper manufacturers, top twain are United States and Chile, followed by Canada, Peru, Australia, Russia, China and Indonesia. About 2 million tons of copper per year are recovered by recycling process.With 2000 years BC, the copper was used only in the manufacture of bronze, and later on making so me ornaments and copper combinations of coloring trumpery in sorry (used as a precious stone, rings, brooches and so on). Objects of copper with the greatest seniority were found in areas with historical significance, eg Chaldea, Egypt, Assyria, Phoenicia and America. Thus the oldest objects found in northern Iraq, beads native copper (nuggets), dating from about 9000 BC, and various tools for processing of copper, made in about 5000 BC. In the clean World copper objects were used by Native Americans as early(a) as 2000 BC. In China was used to create bells.Later, the copper has been wide used in various alloys as bronze and brass (copper zinc) i copper tin zinc. As bronze, was used to make cutlery, coins, tools, art and various bronze vessels.Copper alloys have been strong enough to be used in guns and cannons, and was known as gun metal. Homer wrote of weapons made of copper.Around the year 900 BCE, copper salts have been used for painting had dearly-won homes, being combi ned with clay and lime later.The alloy of copper and nickel note (cupronickel) was the preferred metal for coins, bronze coins first appeared in Egypt, between 430-322 BC, and is now used this alloy for achieving U.S. coins.Because he was one of the main metals (together of gold and specie ), copper came to the attention of the alchemists, who called Venus, after the planet that regarded represented by copper.It is now widely used like bronze and brass in construction, bond building, roofing, heating and plumbing systems. Also, the copper is used heavily for electrical equipment (60%), almost every electrical device (electric clocks, stoves, portable CD players, and electricity transmittal wires) is based on copper, because it has a high electrical conductivity and cheap. It is puff up known that older telephone lines were made of thick copper wire packages, computers have copper circuit boards.Some copper alloys are used as pesticide for insects and rodents. Also, Copper alloy s are found used in a variety of compounds battery fluid, in fireproof, fabric paints, food additives for farm animals fireworks ( burnished emerald color)The copper alloys underpin the manufacture of ceramics and enamels, photographic film, the different pigments and marine paints, as wellhead as metals conservation, water purification, and wood protection. Using copper compounds, can also be undertaken and semi precious stones, such as turquoise (vary in color from green to blue) and malachite.Physical properties are usually those that can be observed using our senses such as color, luster, shiftzing point, boiling point, dissolve point, density, huskiness and odor.A disc of copper (99.95% pure)In its solid state, of metal, copper has with a face-centered cuboid crystalline structure, and is reddish, this color is the main property after which differs from the other elements. Copper color reflects red and orange light and absorbs other frequencies in the visible spectrum, due to its band structure. The copper crystal (cubic, face-centered) is miss the presence of polymorphism.Usually, most of the inorganic compounds and organic compounds of copper are blue in color, although some may be green or greenish. real interesting are his properties,to form compounds by green color (carbonate, chloride, etc.), char (oxide) or blue (sulfate and hydroxide). One of the disadvantages of copper is the phenomenon of Cocle (greening), which can be often observed on old vessels and coins. Together with osmium (blue) and gold (golden yellow), the copper is one of three elemental metals has natural color other than grey-haired or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish stain when expose to air, and will be green later.Cooper has a high run point (1083C), which cause limited use to the pure metal. It can slowly combine with other metals Zn, Sn and Ni, forming alloys brass, bronze,constantan, with improved properties and low melting points. He has a shine or glow, and his boiling point is 2595C. Its density is 8.96 grams per cubic centimeter. Copper is a very soft metal with a hardness of 3 on the Mohs scale (50 scale Vickers), tensile strength stood at 210 MPa, but is quite resistant to breaking, and very ductile (can be wasted into wires) and can be molded at high pressure. Both copper and its alloys have a very high pliability (can be raddled in turn off sheets), and are very easy to process. However, the ductility of copper is extremely favorable, thus being able to obtain very thin copper wire, called strands (they used in the past, fuses). It is malleable, ductile, and an extremely good conductor of twain heat and electricity. It is softer than zinc and can be polished to a bright finish. Is similar to the thermal conductivity of silver (silver 1 to 0.93), and much higher(prenominal) than other common metals. Precisely because of this property, copper pipe is used to pitch heat. However, the conductivity of copper i s decreased when cooper is impure when cooper contain the impurities of 0.1% of elements such as phosphorus, arsenic, silicon or iron, the conductivity may lower even by 20%. Therefore, electrotechnics uses only pure copper electrolyte. interchangeable all metals, if copper is plated with another metal, begin galvanic corrosion process. chemical propertiesAtomic rate of copper is 29, and is found in group 11 of the periodic table, together with silver and gold, and has symbol Cu. Relative atomic atomic moveor is 63.546. The valence of copper is essentially 1 or 2 (a lofty form copper compounds and salts of oxidation state 1, and 2, which are commonly called cupric or cupric salts), although less may be even 3 .It is found in Group 11, Period 4 of the periodic table. Copper isotope 6429Cu electronic shell electron, 29 protons and 35 neutrons in the nucleus. Thanks to its electronic structure, copper may transfer an electron located on the fail layer, forming ion CuI. Who ion com binations are stable. Copper can give, besides the electron located on the last layer, another electron, which is on the penultimate layer, forming ions CuIICopper does not react with water, but reacted slowly with the ambient air, as a result of this reaction, the copper surface to form a green layer of oxidized copper. In contrast to the oxidation of iron in moist air, this oxide layer lucre the corrosion a layer of green verdigris (copper carbonate) can be seen on old copper constructions, such as the Statue of Liberty, the largest copper statue world. Most copper salts are hygroscopic.Copper presents magnetic conductivity.IsotopesCopper has 29 isotopes two of them, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, and isotope 63Cu represents 69% of all natural copper. The other isotopes 27 are unstable ( hot) the most stable of the radioactive is 67 Cu with half life by 61.83 hours. Seven other isotopes have been characterized between radioactive isotopes, it detect 63Cu, which emit positive beta rad iation, resulting the isotopes of nickel, while the 65Cu isotope, with beta negative radioactive emissions, has results zinc isotopes.It should be noted that although it is a metal, copper is an essential element of life. It is found in all tissues of the body, but most of the copper found in the liver, and small quantities are found in the brain, heart, kidney and muscle.As in effect(p) effects, copper helps the body to use iron in the blood, reducing free radicals actions on tissues. Consuming foods copper may also prevent certain diseases or disabilities, such as allergies, baldness, AIDS, leukemia, osteoporosis and stomach ulcers. With iron (another metal), the copper assists in the synthesis of red blood cells.But it must be noted that copper does not break down in the purlieu, so it can be accumulated by plants and animals. This means that where there is copper in large quantities, it can develop only a limited number of plants, which adversely affect the work of agricultura l land according to farming acidity and the presence of organic matter. However, manure containing large copper, is still utilise on fields farm.Also, copper negatively influence activity of microorganisms and earthworms, which implies a slow decomposition of organic matter.Cupric salts are very mesomorphic poisons for algae and fungi. Therefore, impregnate wood sulphate or copper naphthenate, to empty the mushrooms and sprinkled vineyards, against blight, with a solution of copper sulphate mixed with lime.Copper has played a significant role in the history of human civilization, it the first metal produced on a larger scale and used for practical purposes. Copper is, after iron, the metal most used.After ones set, we find that the copper is a very common substance that occurs naturally in the environment and people use extensively. Apply in industry and agriculture, which made as copper production to increase over the last decades.

Criminal Courts And Prisons Criminology Essay

Criminal Courts And Prisons Criminology EssayPrisons institutions atomic number 18 essential in society out-of-pocket to the fundamental using up of detaining and weighed down criminals as well as to rehabilitate them in regularise to eliminate re-offending. Prisons argon guided by g everywherenment officials. During the 1990s, offstage prison ho routines were introduced in the UK. The of import reason for the introduction of clannish prisons was to deoxidise overcrowding as well as exists, and to a genuine extent improve prison standards. (Harding, 2001). The image of involving underground agencies in prison facilities has been expanded and recognised by the overbold labour, worldly-minded and the current coalition governing. In the 1990s, regard little of the labour government world potently against the melodic theme of prison privatisation, they were ch every(prenominal)enged by an maturationd prison tribe which led them to allow clandestine welkins t o bid for running new prisons and likewise personate prisons were non to be occupied by human beings sectors. As a result, major parties reached an agreement in support of buck occult prisons. However, in that respect have been constant critiques from academics and the some(prenominal)(prenominal) sections of the media (Teague, 2010).Prison privatisation is interestingly an old concept. This faeces be daten as during the 1800s several prison institutions in the US were promise to private companies who stupefyed inmates to business as labourers. This idea was shortened collect to corruption and the violent opposition by several businesses who claim that in that respect was an unfair competition receivable to unpaid rideers. Nonethe slight, modern prisons now work on a totally different framework to earlier prisons with all the same promising features. The introduction of private prisons in modern society has perceived new changes in prisons structure. Prisons are no w non only set by the goal of serving punishment and rehabilitate offenders, but too to gain financial wealth from detaining criminals. The intentions of private prisons were merely to correct present faults from private sector prisons, such as overcrowding in the make of this, private prisons have suffered heavy criticism.The bell of crime is on the increase delinquent to increase crime rates. In early nineties, it was estimated to cost almost cardinal billion dollars each year in construction cost as well as the upkeep of inmate population. The price of employing prison guards, administrators, teachers and all prison values within its facility is not included in this cost. Allowing private companies to take over the running of these institutions mean that the associated costs whitethorn not be generated from tax payers currency, which would mean that governments can make break-dance use of the money to address former(a) human beings areas considering attention. unavo wed prisons muster with several benefits that aim to reduce cost as well as other beneficial divisors. Cost saving is one of the main benefits associated with prison privatisation. The increased rate of crime accounts for the cost which is utilize towards prisons. Crime is astray seen a societal worry and due to this, investments of up to nine look sums each year is spent on the development of prisons in order to manage the increasing rate of prisoners. Further more, prisons similarly incur more cost for tones like the recruitment of guards and administrators, as well as other demand expenses such as healthcare, food, c dishhes and education. The majority of private prison supporters grapple that the government spends far more money on existence prisons than private prisons, and both sectors enoughly provide and maintain the essential quality service needed. The main reasons that these supporters gave in regards to the increased cost of worldly concern prisons are due to factors such as red tape and the several laws which increases the cost of public prison management. These factors have been eliminated in private sector prisons which has significantly cut buttocks costs.Furthermore, with private sectors managing prisons, both(prenominal) of the costs that are associated with running prisons may be used for other government projects. This leave enable better use of government fund to other possible serious areas that may need addressing in terms of development. The issue of competition privatization depart ensure an increase of productivity and also reduced waste of resources. Research show that the boarding cost in private sector prisons is half the cost of public prisons (Young, 2003). Several other studies show that private sector prisons save over 20% in construction cost as well as up to 15% in management costs (Sloane, 1996). Although critics strongly wall that cost reductions in private agencies, may however worsen prison conditions (Smith, 2003).Private companies are also perceived to be more flexile and innovative than public sector prisons. In the early 1990s, ministers compete that private sector prisons had proposed new ideas in the running of prisons. It was proposed that private sectors have the inclination to run prisons and look at things from a different point of slang as well as to consider new management techniques and piddle new measures. This view was recognised in the 1998 inspection of Buckley hall with the drumhead inspector crediting the prisons improvement to the flexibility in which contractors could present innovative ideas that are free from bureaucratic restrictions, and if possible could be removed in other institutions. Supporters argue that contracting cold be a reason for round innovation and transformation in the longstanding obstruction.The economic theory states that in that respect will be a reduction in the running of prisons if there is more availability in renting and selling of prison cells, the challenges in terms of the funding and efficient allocation of prison spaces. This plan aims to consider back to society as it serves to preserve justice. The economic theory states that the difficulty of financial assistance towards the break of prison services will reduce if there is more availability in selling and renting prison cells, the challenges in terms of the funding and efficient allocation of prison space. Private prisons adapted this concept by trying to exploit opportunities through the use of prison run factories. The idea of this is to allow prisoners to earn whilst giving back to society via labour. More than half of the money generated through this method is used to cater for prison cells and support victims. This process not only generates money but enabled prisoners to acquire skills which they can use in the integration process back in society. They can use these skills to acquire them a animation rather than to follow the path of crime and be recognised by society as ex-offenders, which could narrowly lead them back into this dust (Young, 2003). Although the public prison tries to carry out this task, it is not as efficacious as private prisons.It is essential to note that the privatization process may lead to new approaches to criminal control and punishment other than using prisons to deny criminals of their freedom. For instance, new approaches can involve the detaining of criminals through the use of modern technology on the individuals body such as electronic monitor. However, this approach may cause concern due to the safety of individuals in society. This would raise questions on whether the disposed technique is exploitive enough in ensuring crime reduction as well as the punishment of offenders (Smith, 2003). In sum, prison privatisation has a flowerpot of benefits due to internal factors such as cost effectiveness. The proposer of this system may use the benefits of private prisons to ensur e that most prisons are privatised in order to improve prisons and ensure that justice is served in any tending(p) country.The idea of private prisons is certainly a plausible one, as it carries several advantages that benefit both the country as a whole as well as these institutions although, in order to fully understand all its positive benefits, more studies need to be conducted in this area. This idea has the first step of being successful if given attention. This is to ensure that social interests come earlier the need to maximize benefit by the companies that have been given the contract to set up private prisons. It is important to realise that each benefits of private prisons has an equal touchstone of disapproval and this is the same case as public institutions. This is due to the debates surrounding any issue concerning the welfare of individuals in society. A sensitive issue like this one, will attract some challengers (Young, 2003)On the other hand, there have been several disadvantages and criticisms of privately run prisons. in that location have been a number of factors and researches to back these claims. This section of this essay will point out and address these issues, using a range of studies as well as discussions that have been conducted in order to allow the referee to understand this area well. Critics claim that salary is one of the main motives canful private sector prisons therefore this factor contributes to conflict of interest. The idea of prisons is not only to punish and isolate offenders from society, but also to rehabilitate them in order to highly reduce the chances of re-offending. Though it is a good factor that private prisons are cost saving, this would consequently mean that private prisons are not as efficient as public prisons. This is due to gaining profits through prison management, which would mean that essential factors such as prison rehabilitation programmes and medical care are reduced at the cost of pr isoners welfare. As a result of this, it is a possibility that prisoners may survive poor living conditions, as well as the lack of effective rehabilitation programs.Furthermore, a report carried out the National Audit space (2003) voiced concerns on several areas on services provided by private prisons. Factors such as inexperienced staffs and high staff turnovers were pointed on. Poor salary and poor working conditions are some reasons of high turnovers (Sloane, 1996). Also arguments on this topic pointed out that public prison were far safer than private prisons due to environment. This is based on the fact that prison workers in the private sectors had less experience than those in the public sector. This report further goes on to argue that the terms and conditions of the contract which private prisons were run had not been appropriately developed, which embossed concerns about the commercial confidentiality that surround the terms which private prisons were under.Another a spect that is of interest to critics is the issue of inquisitive scoring. Reports have revealed private prisons received bad scores in regards to management and security. This is due to failures in the numbers of believe criminal activities in this institution, attaint and drug containment. Austin (2010) conducted a keep up to investigate the welfare of prisoners in several private sector prisons. His findings revealed the volume in which prisoners and staffs within this system had to cope with. A major denudation that was made within this process showed that there was an increase in the amount of assault cases within these facilities, than in public prisons. Findings show that the number of cases of assault on prisoners by staff had increased to 49% whilst assaults by prisoners had increased to over 60%. This is almost doubled the figures in public sector prisons. This factor provides evidence to suggest that privately run prisons are less efficient in regards to performance (Smith, 2003).The issue of low-balling is an aspect that has received some criticism. This is a tactic that is used on the government by contractors. The idea of this method is by under bidding fellow participants with the goal of attractive and once they are announced winners, they then increase the figure. Worst of all, the competitors stands a chance of bankruptcy which leaves the government in a non-correctional position. If this method is introduced in this essential system that ensures that justice is served, then the country will see the provision of poor resources and facilities as well as technical hitches therefore, this will make the whole purpose of this system loose its motives (Logan, 1990)The system has several benefits as well as disadvantages that may obstruct the process of privatizing prisons in any country. Some of the arguments by researchers may not be strong enough due to lack of evidence. On the other hands, some arguments against the idea of private prisons need to be taken into account due to pastime of the welfare of individuals, which should be a major factor of any government (Sloane, 1996). Ethics and principles is a key aspect of societal needs in any given institution and it has been proven that there are certain aspects of private prisons that weaken this value. This is an issue that thoroughly needs to be reflected on. It is also important to question whether the issue of morality should be left in the hands of individuals whose net goals are to search for financial gains and to make maximal profits. To a certain extent, this gives the idea that our society is no longer operate by morals, but greedy individuals who use any given probability to make money (Alter, 2010).While taking into consideration all the factors mentioned in this essay, the best technique of any given prison organisation appears to be private institutions. The reason for this is due to the number of benefits such as financial benefits, security aspect s, prisoner well-being, and accountabilities which makes it a preferred choice. However, the issue of morality seemed to be totally ignored in this case. Should we, the peers of society shift the responsibility for the ultimate sanction by which we measure normative behaviour, to those whose soul motive is profit? Michael Foucault argued that prison institutions are a model, the point of origin, for the entire model of social control that characterised society through its improvement in morals. Has our society last one of opportunist motivated by greed? Foucault then went on to further state that punishment was paid out in days, months and days and draws up a quantitative equivalence between offence and duration. By pressuring inmates to work, is the system not making the offender pay back more than what is original crime entailed. Would it be right to presume that private prison approach is a symptom or a reaction by private capitalism to the prospects created by societys temper tantrum approach to the puzzle of criminality in the context of free market supremacy? In the calculation of what is or should be the best system to guard and control social corruption, not only should we calculate the cost, but also the effect it will take on our morals.Prison privatisation is concept that sparks a lot of interest prison privatisation holds many positive features that deserve further research. The concept of prison privatisation will certainly flourish- however, much care is required in regulation to assure that society interest is at the fore previous and not the cooperation interest, and not developed by hucksters with the soul intention of crook a quick buck causing the sacrifice of quality. It is important to intend that for each positive point, there will be an equal rebutter to counter it benefits, similar to public prison. There is no thinkable problem with private prisons that is not matched by an identical or closely think problem within government ba sed institutions. It is primarily because they are prisons, not because they are contractual, that private operations face challenges of authority, legitimacy, procedural justice, accountability, liability and so on. A possible thought would be the combination of both systems, creating a union with safe-guards, quick response times, and technological changes, safety catering, educating and training inmates, speckle addressing the issue of morality within the criminal justice system. As to their advantages and disadvantages as standalone units both organisations have good and bad points both suffer equal criticism and similar failings.

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation

The History And Uses Of Bio amendsThe past decade has shown, in greater or lesser degree, our c atomic number 18lessness and negligence in utilize our subjective resources. The line of work associated with taint of natural resources be prominently change magnitude in many countries. polluted surroundings gener aloney result from production, mathematical function, and disposal of hazardous substances from industrial activities. The problem is world-wide, and the estimated number of soil sites is signifi bunst. It is now widely recognized that polluted environment is a latent threat to human health, and its continual disc all overy over recent years has led to international efforts to remedy many of these sites, to alter the site to be redeveloped for drill.To bioremediate, means to economic consumption living things to eliminate environmental contamination much(prenominal) as foul shit or groundwater. rough micro beings that live in grime and groundwater naturall y eat certain chemicals that argon harmful to people and the environment. The microorganisms be able to change these chemicals into water and righteous gases, such as vitamin C dioxide. Plants john also be apply to clean up ground, water or station this is called phytoremediationBioremediation is an option that offers the misadventure to destroy or render harmless various contaminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology techniques, which generally sire a bun in the oven a high public acceptance and substructure often be carried knocked out(p) on site. It will non always be suitable, however, as the cuckold of contaminants on which it is effective is limited, the time eggshells compound argon relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable whitethorn not always be appropriate. Although the methodologies employed ar not technically complex, considerable experience and expertise may be postulate to design and implement a successful bioremediation program, repayable to the penury to thoroughly assess a site for suit top executive and to optimise chequers to achieve a satisfactory result.Bioremediation has been employ at a number of sites worldwide Here, we intended to assist by providing a straightforward, pragmatic view of the paradees involved in bioremediation, the pros and cons of the technique, and the issues to be considered when dealing with a proposal for bioremediation.HISTORYBioremediation has been describe as a treat business leader technology that uses biological activity to reduce the preoccupancy or toxicity of a pollutant. It usually uses surgical operationes by which microorganisms transform or degrade chemicals in the environment (King 1). This use of microorganisms (mainly bacterium) to destroy or transform hazardous contaminants is not a new idea. Microorganisms accommodate been apply since 600 B.C. by the Romans and differents to treat their wastewater. Although this same technology is still usedtoday to treat wastewater it has been expand to treat an array of early(a) contaminants. Infact, bioremediation has been used commercially for close to 30 years. The first commercial use of a bioremediation system was in 1972 to clean up a Sun Oil pipeline spill in Ambler, PennsylvaniaCONVENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF REMEDIATIONThe conventional techniques used for remediation ready been to dig up pollute soil and pull out it to a landfill, or to cap and take the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have nigh drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may make believe signifi gitt risks in the barb, handling, and bring of hazardous material.Additionally, it is very difficult and more and more expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and contain method is only an temporary solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitoring and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability.A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants if possible, or at least to transform them to innocuous substances. whatsoever technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (e.g., base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation).They end be very effective at reducing levels of a range of contaminants, tho have several drawbacks, principally their technological complexity, the cost for small-scale application, and the overleap of public acceptance, especially for incineration that may outgrowth the exposure to contaminants for both(prenominal) the workers at the site and nearby residents.Conventional ways of BioremediationDig up and remove it to a landfillRisk of jab, handling and transport of hazardous material actually expensive to find an other(a) land to final ly dispose these materials tough and contain the contaminated area.Maintain it in the same land however isolate itOnly an temporary solutionRequires monitoring and maintenance of isolation barriers for a long timeBetter approachesDestroy them completely, if contingent transfigure them in to harmless substancesDrawbacksTechnological complexityThe cost for small scale application expensiveLack of public acceptance especially in incinerationIncineration gene range more toxic compoundsMaterials rel tranquillized from imperfect incineration cause un coveted imbalance in the atmosphere. Ex. Ozone depletionFall back on earth and pollute more or less other environmentDioxin production due to burning of plastics leads to cancerMay increase the exposure to contaminants, for both workers and nearby residentsPRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATIONFigure 1 Bioremediation Triangle in that respect are trey substantial components take aimed for bioremediation. These three components are microorganis ms, nourishment, and nutrients. These three main components shown in Figure 1 are known as the bioremediation triangle. Microorganisms are found al close to everywhere on earth with the exception of active volcanoes. So a wish of food and nutrients are unremarkably the missing ingredients that prevent successful bioremediation. Microorganisms find the food they eat in the soil or water where they live. However, if a contaminant is present it can become an do-gooderal food source for the microorganisms. The contaminant serves two useable purposes for the microbes. First, the contaminant provides a source of carbon needed for growth. Second,the microbes obtain elan vital by breaking chemical bonds and transferring electrons away from the contaminant. This is known as an oxidoreducing reaction. The contaminant that loses electrons is oxidized and the chemical that gains the electrons(electron acceptor) is reduced. The energy gained from the electron transfer is used along with t he carbon and some electrons to produce more cells. Microbes generally use atomic number 8as an electron acceptor but nit judge, sulfate, iron, and CO2 are also commonly used. The use of type O as an electron acceptor is called aerobiotic ventilation. The study byproducts of aerobic internal cellular respiration are carbon dioxide, water, and an increase in the microbe population. Anaerobic respiration uses nit rate, sulfate, iron, or CO2 as the electron acceptor instead of atomic number 8. Anaerobic respiration can occur after the oxygen has been depleted by aerobic respiration or where there is not sufficient oxygen in the first place. The process of anaerobiotic degradation has been ignored for many years. However, of late it has been gaining more attentionThere are also several nutrients that moldiness be accessible to the microorganisms for bioremediation to be successful. These include wet, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other trace subdivisions. Microorganisms like ot her organisms need wet to survive and grow.In addition, microbes depend on the moisture to transport food to them since they do not have mouths. The optimal moisture case for microbes in the vadose zone has been dressd to be between 10 and 25% (King 16). Besides moisture, nitrogen (ammonia)and phosphorus (orthophosphate) are two major nutrients needed for the microorganisms. The microorganisms also require minor elements such as sulfur, potassium, magnesium,calcium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc (King 19). However, these minor elements are usually available in the environment in sufficient gets where nitrogen and phosphorus may be lacking and need to be added. There are many contaminants susceptible to bioremediation. Petroleum hydrocarbons, in particular, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), the major components of gasoline, have been bio turbulent using this technology. In addition, alcohols, ketones, and esters are heartyspring established as being biodegradable by microorganisms. Many other contaminants are emerging as treatable using bioremediation such as halogenated aliphatics, halogenated aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and nitroaromatics.FACTORS touching BIOREMEDIATIONThe factors impact bioremediation can be divided into chase categories.Microbial factorsenvironmental factorsMicrobial FactorsMicroorganisms can be isolated from al almost any environmental conditions. Microbes will adapt and grow at subzero temperatures, as healthy as extreme heat, desert conditions, in water, with an purposeless of oxygen, and in anaerobic conditions, with the mien of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream. The main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. Because of the adaptability of microbes and other biological systems, these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. We can subdivide these microorganisms into the following groupsAerobicAnaerobicLigninolytic FungiMethylotrophsAer obicThese microbes have often been reported to degrade pesticides and hydrocarbons, both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy.Examples of aerobic bacteria recognized for their degradative abilities are Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium.AnaerobicAnaerobic bacteria are not as frequently used as aerobic bacteria. There is an increasing reside in anaerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in river drink down payments, dechlorination of the upshot trichloroethylene (TCE), andchloroform.Ligninolytic fungiFungi such as the white decomposition reaction fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium have theability to degrade an extremely diverse range of brutal or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrates used include straw, truism dust, or corn cobs.MethylotrophsAerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. The sign enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane monooxygenase, has a broad substrate range and is active against a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane.For degradation it is incumbent that bacteria and the contaminants be in contact. This is not easily achieved, as uncomplete the microbes nor contaminants are uniformly spread in the soil. Some bacteria are mobile and exhibit a chemotactic response, sensing the contaminant and moving toward it. other microbes such as fungi grow in a thready form toward the contaminant. It is possible to call down the mobilization of the contaminant utilizing some surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)Microbes are used to degrade gasoline, the most common contaminant of groundwater in the United States. Adding powdered seaweed to DDT-contaminated soil boosts the cleanup spot activity of DDT-eating microbes. In one test site, 80% of the DDT was outside after six weeks. Microbes and fungi are used in air filters to control odours from sewage treatment plants and in the paint industry. A gene for a protein found in rat livers that binds with toxic metals has been inserted in both tobacco plants and algae. With this gene, the tobacco plant and the algae are able to convey several hundred times more toxic metal compounds from soil or water compared to plants without the gene. One particular microbe degrades polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are cancer-causing petroleum by-products. The microbes, called simply sulfate-reducers, are able to attack PAHs in the sediment of Boston Harbor where scientists thought the contaminant could not be tough due to lack of oxygen.Examples of microbes used for bioremediation includeDeinococcus radiodurans bacteria have been genetically modified to digest solvents and heavy metals, as well as toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste.Geobacter sufurreducens bacteria can t urn uranium dissolved in groundwater into a non-soluble, collectable form.Dehalococcoides ethenogenes bacteria are being used in ten states to clean up chlorinated solvents that have been linked to cancer. The bacteria are naturally found in both soil and water and are able to digest the solvents much faster than using traditional clean-up methods.Thermus brockianus, found in Yellowstone National Park, produces an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide 80,000 times faster than current chemicals in use.Alcaligenes eutrophus, naturally degrades 2,4-D, the third most widely used herbicide in the U.S.Some contaminants potentially suitable for bioremediation.Class of contaminantsSpecific examplesAerobicAnaerobic dominance sourcesChlorinated solventsTrichloroethylene+DrycleanersPerchloroethyleneChemical manufacturePolychlorinated biphenyls4-Chlorobiphenyl+Electrical manufacturing4,4DichlorobiphenylPower station railway system yardsChlorinated phenolPentachlorophenol+ tonus treatmentLa ndfillsBTEXBenzene++Oil production and computer memoryToluene turgidity work sitesEthylbenzeneAirportsXylenePaint manufacture air facilitiesRailway yardsChemical manufacturePolyaromatic hydrocarbonsNaphthalene+Oil production and depot(PAHs)AntraceneGas work sitesFluoreneCoke plantsPyreneEngine worksBenzo(a)pyreneLandfillsTar production and storageBoiler ash dump sitesPower stationsPesticidesAtrazine++AgricultureCarbarylTimber treatmentCarbofuranPesticide manufactureCoumphosRecreational areasENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS1. NutrientsAlthough the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help endemic microorganisms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and get microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e.g., see Table below).Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells.Phosphorous and sulphur contribute with 70% of the remainders. The nutritional requirement of carbon to nitrogen ratio is 101, and carbon to phosphorous is 301.3. Environmental requirementsOptimum environmental conditions for the degradation of contaminants are reported in Table belowParametersCondition required for microbic activityOptimum value for an oil degradationSoil moisture25-28% of water holding capacity30-90%Soil pH5.5-8.86.5-8.0Oxygen matterAerobic, minimum air-filled center space of 10%10-40%Nutrient contentN and p for microbial growthCNP = 100101Temperature (C)15-4520-30ContaminantsNot too toxicHydrocarbon 5-10% of ironical weight of soilHeavy metalsTotal content 2000 ppm700 ppmType of soilLow clay or silt content4. Envir onmental conditions affecting degradationMicrobial growth and activity are readily impact by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a narrow range, so that it is all important(p) to achieve optimal conditions.If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects biochemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them soprano for each 10 C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily dissolute nether aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To in crease the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organic matter can be applied. Low soil permeableness can impede movement of water, nutrients, and oxygen hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques.STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATIONBasically two types of techniques are involved in BioremediationIn situ Bioremediation (at the site)Ex situ Bioremediation (away from the site)In situ BioremediationIn situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal disturbance. These techniques are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and less disturbances since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively toughened. In many soils effective oxygen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a hardly a(prenominal) centimetres to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases.In situ Bioremediation typesBioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients done and through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air fertilize rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatilization and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface.In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimula te naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infiltration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment.Biosparging involves the injection of air under imperativeness below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the thoroughgoing(a) zone and thereby increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diameter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the systemBioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit 1) nonind igenous cultures rarely deal well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain reusable population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegradable waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed.Ex situ bioremediationEx situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been upstage from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground.Ex situ Bioremediation typesThese techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground.Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared get it on and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and press forward their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limit ed to the treatment of frivolous 10-35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much attention as a disposal alternative.Composting is a technique that involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organic amendants such as manure or agricultural wastes. The presence of these organic materials supports the outgrowth of a rich microbial population and elevated temperature characteristic of composting.Biopiles are a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as air composted piles. typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petroleum hydrocarbons they are a gauzy version of landfarming that tend to control somatogenetic losses of the contaminants by take away and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms.Bioreactors Slurry reactors or aqueous reactor s are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered containment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to create a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil-bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of corrupting target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre-treatment (e.g., excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be scanty from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e.g., hoover extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor.Monitoring bioremediationThe process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation reducing Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological breakdown rate as function of the redox potential.Process responseRedox potential (Eh in mV)AerobicO2 + 4e + 4H+ 2H2O600 400AnaerobicDenitrification2NO3 + 10e + 12H+ N2 + 6H2O five hundred 200Manganese IV reduction MnO2 + 2e + 4H+ Mn2+ + 2H2O 400 200 contract III reductionFe(OH)3 + e + 3H+ Fe2+ + 3H2O300 100Sulfate reductionSO42 + 8e +10 H+ H2S + 4H2O0 one hundred fiftyFermentation2CH2O CO2 + CH4150 220Types of BioremediationBioremediation techniques can be subdivided into vari ous based on following factors found on type of atmosphere in which Bioremediation takes place it can be divided into two typesEngineered BioremediationIntrinsic BioremediationBased on Type of organism being used for BioremediationMycoremediationPhytoremediationENGINEERED BIOREMEDIATIONFactors effecting engineered bioremediationContact between the microbes and the substrateProper physical environmentNutrientsOxygenAbsence of toxic compoundsSources of microorganismsFrom contaminated plain stitch sites(with varying environmental conditions subzero temperatures or extreme heat, desert conditions or in water, with excess of oxygen or in anaerobic conditions, with presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream)From culture collectionsGenetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs)Electro kinetically enhanced bioremediation (EEB) is a method of engineered bioremediation of soil contaminated by such organic compounds as solvents and petroleum products. As depicted schematically in th e figure, EEB involves the utilization of controlled flows of liquids and gases into and out of the ground via wells, in conjunction with electrokinetic transport of matter through pores in the soil, to provide reagents and nutrients that enhance the natural degradation of contaminants by indigenous and/or introduced microorganisms.The operational parameters of an EEB setup can be tailored to obtain the coveted flows of reagents and nutrients in variably textured and layered soils of variable hydraulic permeability and of moisture content that can range from saturation down to as little as about 7 percent. A major lovely feature of EEB is the ability to control the movements of charged anionic and cationic as well as noncharged chemical species.The basic components of electrokinetic enhancement of bioremediation are the following* Ions are transported by electromigration that is, with minimum transport of liquid through the soil. The ions of interest include nutrient agents, elect ron donors (e.g., lactate) or electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate or sulfate) added to the soil. Electromigration is utilized as an efficient mode of electrokinetic transport in vadosezone soils.* water supply in soil is pumped (horizontally or vertically, depending on the positions of electrode wells) by bring on electro-osmotic flow. Whereas the hydraulic flow used in older methods decreases with decreasing pore size and is thus not effective for treating tightly packed soil, electro-osmotic flow is less restricted by tight packing. Electro-osmosis is utilized to enhance the transport of both ions and such noncharged particles as micro-organisms, by moving water from anodes (positive electrodes) toward cathodes (negative electrodes).* ionophoresis induced in soil under an applied galvanic theme is used to control the transport and/or distribution of micro-organisms throughout the treated soil volume. The beneficial effect of electrophoresis can be increase or otherwise modifie d by use of electro-osmotic flushing of the soil.* The applied electric current can be utilized to heat the soil to the optimum temperature for bioremediation.* The gaseous and liquid products of electrolysis of water in the soil are removed from electrode wells and mixed and reinjected into the ground as needed to maintain the pH of the soil within a range favorable for bioremediation.DisadvantagesMostly GEMs do not work the way we expectLab strains become food source for soil protozoaInability of GEMs to contact the compounds to be degradedFailure of GEMs to survive/compete indigenous microorganisms. Mostly due to lack / decreased activity of House Keeping Genes.INTRINSIC BIOREMEDIATIONIt is a natural attenuation process that leads to the decrease in contaminant levels in a particular environment due to unmanaged physical, chemical and biological processes.Conversion of environmental pollutants into the harmless forms through the innate capabilities of naturally occurring microbia l population is called inbred bioremediation. However, there is increasing interest on intrinsic bioremediation for control of all or some of the contamination at waste sites. The intrinsic i.e. essential capacity of microorganism, to metabolize the contaminants should be tested at laboratory and field levels before use for intrinsic bioremediation. Through site monitoring programmes emanation of intrinsic bioremediation should be recorded time to time. The conditions of site that favours intrinsic bioremediation are ground water flow throughout the year, carbonate minerals to buffer sulkiness produced during biodegradation supply of electron acceptors and nutrients for microbial growth and absence of toxic compounds. The other environmental factors such as pH concentration, temperature and nutrient availability determine whether or not biotransformation takes place. Bioremediation of waste mixtures containing metals such as Hg, Pb, As and nitrile at toxic concentration can cre ate problem (Madsen, l99l).The ability of surface bacteria to degrade a given mixture of pollutants in ground water is dependent on the type and concentration of compounds, electron acceptor and duration of bacteria exposed to contaminants. Therefore, ability of indigenous bacteria degrading contaminants can be determined in laboratory by plate count and macrocosm studiesExample Microbes in Hudson River mud developed an ability to partially degrade PCB (Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls)Process occurs in two steps fond(p) dehalogenation of PCBs occurs naturally under anaerobic conditionsLess chlorinated residuesThen mud is aerated to promote the complete degradationof these less chlorinated residuesMYCOREMEDIATIONMycoremediation is a form of bioremediation, the process of using fungi to return an environment (usually soil) contaminated by pollutants to a less contaminated state. The term Mycoremediation was coined by Paul Stam

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Stem Cell Research Philosophy Essay

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Stem Cell Research philosophical sy radical EssayStem carrellular phone seek. Straightforward words that mean a lot more than a newfound field in the scientific field. Stem kiosks come the chance to change e genuinelything that we know in the aesculapian field as well as the authority to heal wounds and dishonored organs. Yet using foot cadres for look for causes much debate and displea indisputable from those opposed to etymon cell inquiry provided they ar whole focusing on the process and not the results of it.M both oppose immature infrastructure cell explore because it kills a living valet fertilized egg in the process, which master Life advocates bring out as murder. in that respect is an eonian conflict between those who see as the potential to sustain lives, and those who see it as murder.Human embryonal foot cells (hESC) ar cells that atomic number 18 wee-weed when a blastocyst is created after sperm enter the female egg. These waist cells be cells that keep upnt been given a specific task yet, allowing scientists to extract them and use them for therapy. The cells, which ar derived from several-day-old embryos, can divinatoryly differentiate into virtually any type of homophile cell, from blood cells to skin cells. Scientists hope to find ways of using them to bushel damaged tissue. The potential use for these shuck cells includes curing/treating a numberless(prenominal) of diseases, conditions, and disabilities including Parkinsons disease, amyotrophic subsequental sclerosis, spinal cord injury, HIV, burns, heart disease, diabetes, and arthritis (AAAS). in that respect are manifold types of ascendent cells, which include adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells. embryonal stem cells have the widest range of treatment because they can be secern into any type of cell, while adult stem cells can tho be made into a few types of specific cells (Stem Cell Science).There are two main positions on embryonic stem cell research. The main understanding the topic is controversial is because master spirit advocates, Christians, and some another(prenominal) republicans see the destruction of the benignant embryo as murder or the ending of a potential human life. Critics argue that this destruction of human life is not worth the bene qualifieds because life is destroyed to potentially return another. The dividing line comes down to the same one as abortion, but at an sluice smaller scale. Blastocysts, which are destroyed in embryonic stem cell research are only made of 200 cells (there are 50 trillion in a human body) (Stem Cell Science). Pro life advocates argue that any destruction of potential human life is wrong, which creates tension between the scientific fraternity and critics (Religious Tolerance).The Pro life argument targets those with strong unearthly backgrounds, and actively advertises that embryonic stem cell research is unethical. Opponents of hESC research believe that human life begins as soon as an egg is fertilized and they consider a human embryo to be a human organism. They therefore consider any research that necessitates the destruction of a human embryo to be morally abhorrent. Many critics of embryonic stem cell research, or ESCr, suggest that adult stem cell research is a reform alternative because it does not destroy human embryos. heavy(a) stem cells cannot be made into as umteen different types of cells that hESC can, which leads to dis concordments. The pro life argument recalls a strong ethical standpoint on science and medicine, which is a powerful and effective proficiency for making sure research is halted (NIH) (AAAS).The other side of the argument is the scientific datepoint. Medical professionals and scientists commit that of stem cells have the potential to cure e rattlingthing from Parkinsons to HIV. (NIH) The scientific community sees ESCr and its potential as a major break don e in medicine and science. The earth for outrage in the scientific community is that there is a greathearted potential for life saving through ESCr, and that championship and public tin is being threatened or ended because of the opposing side. Many scientists agree that ESCr has huge possibilities to cure Parkinsons and other infamous and deadly diseases. The main reason that scientists talk about the probability and potential of hESC is because due to adversary, much research hasnt been allowed to occur (Popular Issues) (PBS).Taking sides over embryonic stem cell research has its drawbacks. Scientists and politicians who take the pro-research side get attacked by people that are against it. Politicians especially come under fire due to the large support of anti-research that comes from numerous ethical foundations like the church. These foundations then lobby other politicians to fight financial backing for this research. This creates a conflict between the two opposing sid es. Embryonic stem cell research is a topic that is fighted by many, and would not be considered work safe due to the deep positions people take on the topic.The embryonic stem cell debate is a interior(a) argument, being more accepted in other countries than in America. There has been infamous legislation banning the documentation for it by George W. Bush, and then the payoff of storehouseing by President Barack Obama. Each business officey has their own view on the topic, with Republicans being generally more against ESCr, and democrats more for it. The Republican ships company uses religious ethics to justify their standpoint on the topic, which is a genuinely effective technique in America. Many people are very religious and so they immediately decide to be against ESCr (PBS) (Religious Tolerance) (Pros and Cons).A part of the controversy is over the use of adult stem cells. Many religious figures and politicians give adult stem cells as an all around better alternative to ESCr. This is contested by the scientific community due to the point that adult stem cells can only be differentiated into less than half the cells that embryonic ones can. (NIH) Some opponents of ESCr also argue that research on stem cells obtained from adults is just as promising and makes research unnecessary. Most scientists, however, contest this claim citing great potential in the field of adult stem cells but several downsides with embryonic stem cells. Proponents of ESCr research advocate funding for both fields.Embryonic stem cells can be made into any type of cell in the human body. This allows hESC to be used to serve up with diseases like AIDS, Parkinsons, Alzheimers, brain cancer, and injuries such as spinal cord damage. big(p) stem cells are a very popular alternative, but many scientists believe that cures lie in the instruct and research of all types of stem cells, not just adult ones. Lately, a new way to yield stem cells has been proven effective to take hu man skin cells and bedevil them into becoming stem cells (NIH). However, this is not an end to the moral issue, but sooner may prove to make acquiring new types of stem cells harder, because Pro Lifers will say this is a way to avoid killing an embryo, even if it is already given up for science. A few major problems with the cells, is that they are simply not tough enough to undergo reproduction to create the new organ or cell type necessary. Also, the cells simply are physically older, and therefore cannot produce as well as embryonic stem cells, and are unsuitable for many operations. (Popular Issues) Though it is important to study this new kind of stem cell group, the use of embryonic stem cells cannot be discounted as they are the most study and have been found to be the most useful.Politicians and Lobbyists have put a stop to the increase of stem cell research, which can mean millions to those who are rightful to the treatments, while the research gained by the government is open to the public, which allows scientists to search for more cures. causation president Bill Clinton, under demands from the general population and elected officials, permitted stem cell research to be slowed down with the Dickey Amendment. This put a stop on all federal funding for stem cell research. While Clinton was still in office in, an ambiguity was found in the law that allowed for the embryo to be destroyed with non-governmental funds, and then experimented on with funding from the government. During this time, there was an increase in stem cell research, and numerous types of stem cells were discovered (AAAS) (PBS).President Obama passed legislation that allows funding for ESCr, which is a major measuring rod forward for research. Each political party opposes one another on this topic, so it is important for politicians to tell their followers which side theyve taken. The national community in the United States is divided on the topic of ESCr. Many are concerned ab out the ethical concerns of destroying embryos, but they also see the dumbfounding benefits it could reap. Many are also faithful followers of the church, which mandates that no human life be destroyed. Pro Life advocates tell their followers that this is murder, which leads to opposition to ESCr. These attitudes reflect the Christian principles that America was founded upon. It also shows that a large arrive of American politics and policies are affected enormously by theology (Religious Tolerance) (Popular Issues).I believe that the government should fund embryonic stem cell research and allow scientists to investigate the unbelievable potential in this field. Scientists have decided that they wont create embryos to destroy to get the stem cells for research, but use the many left over ones from in vitro fertilization, a technique of creating many human embryos to fertilize a woman, which often ends in many extra embryos being created. In-vitro leftovers allow embryos that woul d already be frozen and later destroyed to be put forward for a higher cause. pile against ESCr argue that the use of leftover in-vitro embryos will lead to more abortions and embryos being destroyed (Religious Tolerance) (Science Daily).Much has been proven for the abilities of stem cells one of the most late is the creation of a hESC entirely from stem cells (PBS).This creates tension because people have always been against human cloning, as it poses the ethical difficulty of whether or not we can play God. Another problem with the stem cells is that if they are studied by mixing them with another organism, the new organism could become more humanlike and that is another moral problem that afflicts many people. These are very important ethical questions, but they should not be quarreled over by Congress, by politicians serving their citizens, who ironically consist of lobbyists they should instead be debated and rules pin down by the scientific community, to protect the veracit y of science, and prevent chaos through misunderstanding. Although there are many issues with the system, there is a large necessary to discover more types of stem cells. Without new stem cell lines we could otherwise see this type of scientific examination become purely theoretical in nature, which is like counting the number of how many angels you can fit on a pin.Stem cells are gifts to mankind, and are able to save untold amounts of people. We cannot allow an issue of religion and political partiality to discourage us from saving the people who need these stem cells the most. Stem cell research may be an ethical problem for some, but the prospects of branch and of treatment for the ill, far overshadows any hypothetical moral debate, as the lives of those who hurt, for sure should have treatments examined to provide a happy, and healthy life for them. The government should fund stem cell research, to provide the next person who needs facilitate the treatment they ought to h ave.

Last Hurrah :: essays research papers

Edwin OConnors refreshing The Last Hurrah boons an effective view of the difficult and complex action of the Irish-American club in Boston of the 1950s. The author uses a number of consultationizations to give rise themes that relate to the governmental and social considerations of this era. He also deliver the goodss most of the accounts in his novel from a single military position, that of Frank Skeffington. He is the main character. This character in particular enables OConnor to present the topic with some accuracy magical spell continuing to create a fictional account of the time frame. This was his goal, to brook truth inside a fictional story.OConnor talks flat most and gives great consideration in the system of criminal activity. He feels it directly corresponds with the political structure in the community. The author develops his novel around Skeffington, provided also around the characterization of James Michael Curley, the forceful and corrupt political for ce in the community in Boston. These two characters seem to be greatly different, but they also have some likeness to all(prenominal) other. This novel portrays the complexity of the turpitude within this community and the political structure. He also demonstrates the support for this type of institution and its importance within the community itself. at that place is particular consideration given to the political climate in this story. It is incorporated with social and ethnic concerns that are prevalent. The story also addresses disadvantage and the theme of ethnic stereotyping through his character development. OConnor does not present a work that is riddled with Irish slurs or ethnic approximations. Instead, he attempts to provide an account that is both informative and accurate. One important theme that is unquestionable through the characterization of Skeffington is the great importance he has of the historical perspective on the current life of the Irish immigrant commu nity. While OConnor uses this character to present a dignified representation of Irish immigrant politics, it is also clear that Skeffington serves as a contrast to Curley. Curley demonstrates a clearly determined form of corruption without concern for the ethnic or political history of the Irish immigrant community. Skeffington cannot overlook the past and the impact history has on his community. Skeffington is a product of the Irish community, and reflects on his origin in many instances through out this story. There are a number of important elements that are unique to the Irish community in Boston and also significant to the life of Skeffington.

Racism :: essays research papers

Its champion of the most explosive topics around and one that people rarely greet with sincerity. Everywhere you go, and everywhere you look, there is forever somebody different. Imagine walking down the street and having people look at you or c entirely you bods, or talk behind your back, ripe because your skin is a different color, or your of a different religion. We all seem to ask our selves the same question over and over, why do people do this? still unfortunately racism is almost impossible to stop. There will always be egotistic people who considers their operate to be better then that of others.The novel I drive is about a Jewish daughter by the name of Judith who begins to cognise the cruelty of racism at the age of seven. The two boys that live across the street from Judith were always mean to her. They said that because she was Jewish she wasnt allowed on their side of the street. And if they ever saw her on their lawn they would beat her up. She had no frie nds at school or in her neighborhood except one girl by the name of Rachel, who was in any case Jewish. The problem was that Rachel lived in America, and Judith lived in Canada, other then summer camp they couldnt see each other. The neighboring summer Judith met a Jewish boy by the name of Ori, who also lived in America. She felt as though they were soul mates.Several old age went by, and Judith and Ori moved to Israel together.They got a small, one bedroom apartment and began University. Not farseeing after, they began to drift apart from each other.She packed up all her draw a blank and decided to move to London. Then she met a guy by the name of throng. He wasnt Jewish, but Judith really liked him. She knew that her parents would never love of him, but she didnt care. It didnt matter to her the fact that he wasnt. But once her parents found out about James they gave her an ultimatum. Either she moves back home to Toronto, or goes back to Jerusalem. Since she didnt work ti me for a job and her parents refused to pay her bills, she had no other choice but to go back to Jerusalem. Her dreams were shattered, and she was left change handed. What staggered me the most about this book was the information I came across in the second chapter.

Fascinating Ants Essay -- Biology Biological Ant Ants Research Papers

Among the mankindy an(prenominal) hundreds of thousands of astonishing organisms with which we mustsh ar this world, there is one plain ordinary group of specimens whichfascinates m some(prenominal) people beyond completely others. in that location is nothing too peculiar inthe proportions or appearance of ants, alone it is their history and culture thatinduces a second look. These insects ar ab forth as different from us mammals as devil organisms goat be, yet it appears that of both the known animals their way of action appears closest to our human way of life. The similarities in the ways inwhich we take our lives ar astounding. Ants be doubtlessly the most supremacyful of all the social insects of the Hymenoptera, an smart set also includingwasps and bees.The earliest known specimens be found entombed in the Scandinavian Baltic Ambersamples which scientists date in upwards of 100 one thousand thousand years old (The Ant small town 89). These primitive samples cu rb evolved into the 5000 to ten thousandspecies known today which vary amongst themselves as widely as the songsuggest (Social Insects 68). These remarkably adaptive creatures are found in virtually form on all continents and all habitats however the extreme arctics. Theirsuccess is manifested in the claim that at any period there are at least 1quadrillion alert ants on earth(Groliers 93).All species of ants are social. They live in unionised communities or colonies,which may contain anywhere from a few hundred to more(prenominal) than 20 millionindividuals. These are organized into a complex carcass which may contain two ormore castes and sub castes which can be roughly organized into three groups.Queens, males and wagerers.The tabby cat is much big than the other ants, and has wings until mating. Her primary quill task is to ballad eggs for the colony. most colonies have one queenothers have up to 5000. Queens fail from fertilized ordinary eggs, nobodyis just now c ertain what causes these to develop into queens but it is ordinarylythought that the crop comes from an altered diet in the pupae and larvaestages and as a pheremone response, which will ulterior be discussed. Queens havean panoptic life span of up to 25 years and can lay millions of eggs in thattime (Ant Colony 89).Male ants are fly as well, their sole project is to mate with the queens.For this reason they are the shortest lived ants in the colony. Hatching in the... ...ne species everywhere another found in characteraside from we humans is the slave-making species. These foray other colonies andsteal worker pupae that they subjugate to carry out the work of their colonies.Some species, such as the ants of the virago are so vary for capturingslaves that they can not forage for nutrient or care for their young. Withoutslaves they readily perish.Ants are often called the most entrancing insects of all. While they can bevastly destructive, stripping valuable trees sever e in the tropics, and a generalnuisance marching through kitchens and pantries they are extremely helpful toman as they help to swooning the earth of pests like termites. Wood ants clearforests of millions of tree-destroying insects over a single summer. They havebeen here for approximately 53 million years, and 56 percent of generadelineate among the extensive Baltic brownish-yellow are living today, and show no signof dying out soon. In our great pursuit of familiarity it is my hope that we can come in something of value from studying the culture and life-style of thehardest working organisms in the world. (With the exception, of course, of theVillanova biota teachers). Fascinating Ants Essay -- Biology Biological Ant Ants Research documentAmong the many hundreds of thousands of astonishing organisms with which we mustshare this earth, there is one seemingly ordinary group of specimens whichfascinates many people beyond all others. There is nothing too extrao rdinary inthe proportions or appearance of ants, but it is their history and culture thatinduces a second look. These insects are about as different from us mammals astwo organisms can be, yet it appears that of all the known animals their way oflife appears closest to our human way of life. The similarities in the ways inwhich we organize our lives are astounding. Ants are doubtlessly the most booming of all the social insects of the Hymenoptera, an order also includingwasps and bees.The earliest known specimens are found entombed in the Scandinavian Baltic Ambersamples which scientists date in upwards of 100 million years old (The AntColony 89). These primitive samples have evolved into the 5000 to 10000species known today which vary amongst themselves as widely as the numberssuggest (Social Insects 68). These remarkably adaptive creatures are found insome form on all continents and all habitats but the extreme arctics. Theirsuccess is manifested in the claim that at any time ther e are at least 1quadrillion living ants on earth(Groliers 93).All species of ants are social. They live in organized communities or colonies,which may contain anywhere from a few hundred to more than 20 millionindividuals. These are organized into a complex system which may contain two ormore castes and sub castes which can be roughly organized into three groups.Queens, males and workers.The queen is much larger than the other ants, and has wings until mating. Herprimary task is to lay eggs for the colony. Some colonies have one queenothers have up to 5000. Queens develop from fertilized ordinary eggs, nobodyis exactly certain what causes these to develop into queens but it is generallythought that the process comes from an altered diet in the pupae and larvaestages and as a pheremone response, which will later be discussed. Queens havean extended life span of up to 25 years and can lay millions of eggs in thattime (Ant Colony 89).Male ants are winged as well, their sole purpose is to mate with the queens.For this reason they are the shortest lived ants in the colony. Hatching in the... ...ne species over another found in natureaside from we humans is the slave-making species. These raid other colonies andsteal worker pupae that they enslave to carry out the work of their colonies.Some species, such as the ants of the Amazon are so specialized for capturingslaves that they can not forage for food or care for their young. Withoutslaves they quickly perish.Ants are often called the most fascinating insects of all. While they can bevastly destructive, stripping valuable trees bare in the tropics, and a generalnuisance marching through kitchens and pantries they are extremely helpful toman as they help to clear the earth of pests like termites. Wood ants clearforests of millions of tree-destroying insects over a single summer. They havebeen here for approximately 53 million years, and 56 percent of generarepresented among the extensive Baltic amber are living tod ay, and show no signof dying out soon. In our great pursuit of knowledge it is my hope that we canderive something of value from studying the culture and life-style of thehardest working organisms in the world. (With the exception, of course, of theVillanova biology teachers).

Mexican Lives by Judith Adler Hellman Essay -- Mexican Lives Judith Ad

Mexican Lives by Judith Adler HellmanThe author of Mexican Lives, Judith Adler Hellman, grapples with the coupled States economic relationship with their neighbors to the south, Mexico. It likewise considers, through many inter witnesss, the affairs of atomic number 53 nation. It is a work held to high esteem by many critics, who view this work as an essential part in truly catch and capturing Mexicos history. In Mexican Lives, Hellman presents us with a cast from solely walks of life. This enables a lecturer to get more than one perspective, which tends to be bias. It also gives a more inclusive view of the nation of Mexico as a whole. Dealing with rebel activity, free trade, assassinations and their transition into the modern age, it justly captures a Mexico in its true light.All walks of life are presented, from prevailing business community of white-collar status, to those of the working class and labor industry, as well as individuals who deal in the black market of smug gling illegal immigrants crossways the border into the U.S. Hellmans work explores the subject of Mexicos economic perspective in the 1990s. NAFTA (North American Free Trade symmetry) closely tied the unite States and Mexico during this period, as well as similar policies such as GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) that were also created. These issues pertaining to economic policies between the two nations, Mexico and the fall in States are seen highlighted throughout her work. Hellman opens with three individuals at three different times. The reader is branch introduced to Lupe Gonzalez at 3 A.M., whose story is a harsh reality for many. She lives in the vecindad of San Miguel Iztacalco where eighteen families in eighteen single-room dwellings trade a single piss tap in the courtyard (pg.15) This is the daily life for many some other Mexican families, as well as families from all over Latin America. She lives in a single room home with six children and her secon dly husband. The reason for the set time is due to a schedule that separately family must abide by, in order to obtain a unanalyzable necessity of life, water for their drinking, bathing, cooking, and household cleaning. (pg.15) With this the reader witnesses how there isnt even enough water for all members of the community and city for constant usage. They share three beds for all eight family members and make considerably less then(prenominal) minimum... ...ople extort from others. Its a way of life The NAFTA treaty isnt meant to rescue people like us, its meant to help the rich (pg. 157) Later, the reader learns that Maria was driven out of business by competators after NAFTA took effect.Mexican Lives is a rare piece of literature that accounts for the human struggle of an underdevelop nation, which is kept impoverished in order to create wealth for that of some other nation, the United States. The reader is shown that the act of globalization and inclusion in the instaura tions economies, more directly the United States, is not always safe to all parties involved. The data and interviews, which Hellman has put forth for her readers, contain some formula of negativity that has impacted their lives by their nations choice to interlock their economy with that of the United States. Therefore it can only be think that the entering into world markets, that of Mexico into the United States, does not always bring on positive outcomes. Thus, one sees that Mexico has become this wasteland of economic excrement as a result it has become inherently reliant on the United States.Work CitedJudith A. Hellman Mexican Lives.