Social and Situated Theories of Learning

Introduction Learning can at times be a very difficult task. Although there is a sense of achievement after one is able to learn something, it is not always easy for such an individual during the process of learning.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social and Situated Theories of Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is particularly difficult for someone who is trying to learn skills that they are not familiar with or difficult concepts that may require a lot effort to be able to learn. Various scholars have come up with theories to explain how effective learning can take place. For example, Kolb has described learning as an individual’s experiences that happen in cycle. However, this process of learning does not cater for the emotional experiences of the learner. Another theory that has been advanced to explain how learning can effectively take place is the social learning theory. The social learni ng theory refers to a method of learning that is usually attributed to Albert Bandura. This theory is mostly used in learning institutions. However, it can also be applied in a workplace setting to improve the outcome. The theory purports that learning occurs through observation and socialization. This means that people learn from each other as they socialize and observe one another in a particular setting, for example, in the workplace. By using the social learning theory, one is able to promote the right employee behavior within the workplace, hence increase productivity. This theory helps one to effectively direct the employees’ behavior in order to encourage the appropriate behavior that is necessary for the growth of the organization. This paper shall address the concept of social learning and the situated theories. The paper shall further look into ways in which these two theories can help trainers facilitate effective learning in their places of work Social theory of l earning and its application in the learning process at the workplace The main proponent of social theory of learning, who is also the pioneer, is called Albert Bandura. The theory proposes that a lot of learning takes place through observation. He suggests that three models are useful in this theory. They include the live model, verbal instruction and the symbolic. The live model involves learning of desired behavior through demonstration.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This happens when a person does the demonstration while those observing are expected to learn the desired behavior from the person demonstrating by mere observation. In verbal instruction model, the desired behavior is expected to be depicted after detailed instructions concerning this desired behavior is given verbally. The listeners are given instructions clearly and accurately and are expected to show this behavior depending on how well they have understood the detailed description of the desired behavior. Finally, the symbolic model suggests that behavior can be acquired through observing characters in the media for example, those who act in various programs. The internet and different forms of literature are also very helpful tools in symbolic modeling. In this type of modeling, the characters who are acting in these programs demonstrate certain behaviors that are imitated by those watching, listening or reading them. Steps in modeling process Attention According to Bandura (1977), certain steps are very important in the modeling process in behavior acquisition. The first step is attention. For learning to take place through any of the three models of behavior acquisition, it is very vital for the individual to be attentive to the behavior that is being exhibited. One is sure to capture the features of the behavior being modeled if they pay attention to it. This makes it easier for them to replicate the behavior they have observed. Retention Again, retention of what one has learnt after paying attention to a certain behavior being modeled is important, if an individual is to replicate the same behavior (Bandura Walters, 1963). It is important for one to remember what one has learnt for easier imitation of the behavior. Reproduction Reproduction is the other step that is vital in the learning process that occurs through observation as proposed by Bandura. Reproduction of behavior occurs when one is able to keenly observe and retain what they have seen. However, it requires a lot of practice for one to accurately reproduce the behavior they have observed.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social and Situated Theories of Learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Motivation Finally, motivation is necessary for an individual to reproduce the behavior they have observed. If there is no incentive for one to reproduce a certain behavior, one may not be willing to put any effort to reproduce the behavior. Motivation is therefore helpful in encouraging one to reproduce a certain desired behavior. Bobo doll experiments To validate his beliefs, Bandura did some experiments using a doll that was known as Bobo. Children were used as the participants of this experiment. These children were placed in three groups. The three groups were expected to exhibit different behavior, depending on the people who were modeling the desired behavior. One of the three groups was used as the control group. One of the remaining two groups was exposed to an adult model, where aggressive behavior was depicted. The last group was exposed to an adult model that was passive. The group that was exposed to the aggressive adult model observed as the adults behaved in an aggressive manner towards the Bobo doll. Some of the aggressive behavior exhibited by the adults in this group included verbal and physical abuse t owards the doll. On the other hand, those adults in the passive group engaged in peaceful interaction with the doll. This means that they avoided any aggressive behavior towards the doll. The two groups behaved in the particular manner they did as children in their groups observed them. After the adults in these groups were through with modeling desired behavior, the children were then given an opportunity to play with the Bobo doll. During play, children who were observing the adults who behaved in an aggressive manner imitated this and behaved in a similar manner when playing with the doll. This means that they were able to imitate what they had seen the adults doing. Compared to the girls in the groups, boys showed a greater tendency to engage in physically aggressive behavior. However, the likelihood for both the boys and the girls in this group to engage in verbal aggression was almost the same. These results helped back up Bandura’s proposition that modeling is very hel pful and influential in the learning process.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More When those who were involved in modeling a certain behavior were punished for any wrong doings, those observing this were able to keep off from such behavior that they observed the model doing and they were punished. This helped in teaching and learning of the right behavior. The social learning theory, developed by Julian Rotter, further suggests that the motivation to engage in a certain behavior is heightened or decreased by the effects that the behavior has on the person engaging in the behavior. A positive outcome of a certain behavior increases the likelihood of occurrence of the behavior while a negative outcome decreases the probability of the occurrence of the behavior. Positive outcomes therefore reinforce the behavior that brings the outcome. In suggesting this, the proponent of this school of thought sought to clarify that the behavior that an individual exhibits is not only determined by psychological factors only but also environmental factors play a great role as well . Social learning therefore, purports that both psychological and environmental factors are vital in influencing behavior. The social learning theory is very useful in modeling the behavior of employees in a place of work. This theory suggests that for any behavior to be learnt, the first step should be modeling that behavior. Trainers can facilitate effective learning in the workplace through modeling the desired behavior instead of just describing to the employees the expected behavior. They should act in the manner they expect the employees to act. When the employees see the trainers model a certain behavior, they are able to imitate the behavior and understand what the desired behavior entails. It is also easier for the employees to reproduce the desired behavior once they see it being modeled by their trainers. Another way that the trainers can help to facilitate effective learning in the workplace is through encouraging the employees to imitate the modeled behavior. Encouragem ent to imitate and reproduce the desired behavior can be done in many ways. For example, the trainers can directly tell the employees to imitate the modeled behavior. Again, encouragement can be done through publicly rewarding employees who exhibit the desired behavior. This gives every employee an opportunity to see the desired behavior and copy it especially, when they see that there is a reward for this. The trainers can also facilitate effective training through observing the employees as they carry out their various tasks. The trainers should continually watch the employees as they carry out the desired behavior in order to ensure that they are doing the behavior in the right way as it was modeled to them. In case the trainer notices that the employees are going astray at some point, they should step in immediately to correct them and help behave appropriately. To facilitate effective learning, the trainers should also stipulate the consequences that employees should face in ca se they fail to exhibit the desired behavior. The consequences should not be unnecessarily harsh on the employees. They can be corrections done verbally at the point the trainer notices behavioral deviation. However, in case of major behavioral deviation, serious consequences can result. Such may include formal sanctions. Self efficacy has great impact on the social learning theory. Self efficacy simply refers to the belief held by an individual concerning their ability to acquire skills and knowledge in a successful manner. This implies that an individual may not be able to reproduce a certain behavior they observe if they do not believe that behaving in the same manner will have the same result as the one they observed. To encourage acquisition of certain behavior, trainers can use formal and informal mentoring programs. These would help employees develop their various competencies through observing others. Employees are likely to reproduce the behavior they see modeled if it has positive rewards or outcomes. Application of the principles of social learning theory in training at the workplace can also encourage effective training. Trainers should use videos and role play, among others, to demonstrate certain concepts while carrying out training in the workplace. These are very effective tools in conveying the desired workplace behavior that should be copied by the employees. Situated learning theory and its application in the learning process by trainers at the workplace Situated learning theory was the proposition of Lave and Wenger. Situated learning is simply learning that happens in a given context and its application takes place within the same context where learning took place. The two are of the opinion that learning is not necessarily the process of transfer of abstract concepts from one person to another. They instead view the learning process as a social process whereby one gains knowledge through the experiences they go through and use the knowled ge to solve certain problems that can be solved using this acquired knowledge. This means that learning is possible to take place in a particular context or environmental setting. Learning takes place through socialization with one’s environment as well as imitation of what one is observing. Learning therefore occurs while people are trying to solve certain problems they have encountered in their community of practice (Miller Dollard, 1941). This can be interpreted to mean that learning is problem based. In an attempt to find solutions to real life problems that one may encounter, learning occurs. The two therefore suggest that being social is very vital for the learning process to take place. In a community of practice, people tend to learn more from those who have more knowledge than them. A problem-based approach should therefore be considered when setting the curriculum for schools. This is effective in preparing the students to work in an environment that would require a problem-based approach to learn what is required for the particular task (Leave Wenger, 1991). Situated learning gives employees a chance to put into practice what they have learnt while doing tasks related to their jobs. In a workplace setting, this theory is very helpful because it encourages learning to take place among peers working in the same environment. Solving of the existing problems and any other that may arise in the course of carrying out various tasks as well as coming up with new ideas are some of the ways that this theory helps in facilitation of effective learning in the workplace. Everyone in the workplace is able to experience the benefits of the learning process that takes place through this theory or learning. These benefits are not only felt within the organization where situated learning is taking place but also in the wider community where such an organization operates. Organizations can also use situated learning theory to help in cutting down the costs o f training that the organization may incur if it conducts structured training, which is usually theoretical in nature and is done by third parties. Instead of doing this, organizations can choose to use situated learning. This involves informal learning which takes place in the particular area that an individual is allocated to carry out different tasks. While carrying out these tasks, one is able to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. This means that they do not necessarily need the structured theoretical training to be able to acquire the required knowledge and skills. Situated learning therefore saves the organization any unnecessary costs that they may have incurred if they conducted structured training. Organizations are nowadays looking for ways which they can use to encourage learning within the communities of practice where they are based. Again, situated learning helps the organization avoid wasting resources and time which may be incurred if training of what is not necessary is done during structured learning (Greeno, 1998). This is because, when giving abstract instruction, one may give too much or too little that may be needed to carry out certain tasks. On the contrary, situation learning helps in acquisition of knowledge that is relevant to the task that one is supposed to accomplish. Situated learning is useful in facilitating effective learning in the workplace. For example, it can be very useful in military training. This means that whatever those who are undergoing training learn is applicable in their place of work. They can therefore effectively apply the skills and knowledge they have gained in a practical setting if need be. Most of what they are taught is not abstract but knowledge that is relevant and applicable in their immediate setting. Using the situated theory of learning, the trainer can encourage a culture of learning in the workplace that recognizes and values the opinions of everyone in the workplace. According to Hung (2002), the trainer should understand that people tend to process and understand concepts more clearly if they are in an environment where there are multiple opinions and beliefs being aired by different peopled without being suppressed. The trainer should therefore, encourage all the employees to freely air out their views and opinions without f ear of being intimidated or ignored. This way, learning takes place easily and more effectively. The understanding of major concepts that employees are expected to learn is also strengthened if this method is used to encourage the employees to speak out their minds. Situated theories can be very helpful when doing training in certain fields. For example, those in the field of architecture can learn by observing the master architects as they work. The novice architects are therefore able to learn and apply what they have learnt in their field of study. Experiential learning can happen in two different ways. First, learning happens through th e acquisition and application of knowledge within the immediate environment where it takes place. This kind of learning is at times funded by formal institutions of learning. It can also be done through training programs that are organized by organizations to equip the employees with the relevant skills and knowledge that is required to carry out certain tasks. Again, learning can occur when one is involved in various activities in their day to day life. In this type of learning, acquisition of knowledge is not an activity that is funded or monitored by formal institutions of learning. Learning occurs through critical thinking and evaluation about the happenings of everyday in an individual’s life. Experience has therefore, been considered as one of the greatest and most effective way that can be used to enhance learning. There are different approaches that have been used to define and expound on the concept of learning. Learning is usually seen as a continuous process, not m erely a final product of a certain short term project. According to Schell Black (1997), the views that one holds are a result of the experience one has accumulated over the years. As one continues to have different experiences in life, they are able to modify any wrong misconceptions they may have about life. Learning is therefore viewed as an ongoing process that enables one to acquire knowledge. Knowledge is got from the experiences that learners go through. In the process of learning, the learner encounters situations that require them to solve various conflicts that may arise from time to time. This means that the learning process is not a smooth one but requires constant application of one’s problem solving skills. Learning is also viewed as a vital part of the human life. This is because it helps an individual adapt well to their physical and social environment. What one learns individually from their experiences is reflected in how they behaved towards their environm ent. This theory can also be used by trainers to help the employees become aware of the skills and competencies that they may be lacking but are not aware. The trainer should therefore look for a good way to inform the employees of the competencies that they are lacking and how they can acquire them. In so doing, the employees will be able to see the need and relevance of training in the workplace and will be receptive towards the measures that the trainers will take to ensure that the necessary competencies are acquired. Learning takes place easily in an environment where employees are aware of the deficient skills and are willing to go through training programs in order to acquire these skills. If the employees are unaware of the need for training, learning is not an easy task. This is why the trainer needs to be sure that the employees in the workplace understand their training needs and are ready to embrace the necessary measures that the trainer may take to ensure that they are competent in their areas of specialization. With the realization that one is not doing what they are supposed to do effectively and training can help them improve this, learning becomes very easy. According to Adams, Cochrane Dunne (2012), the trainer should also show sensitivity to the employees’ feelings when designing certain training programs. This is because, the employees can feel very discouraged if they realize that training programs have been designed to teach them new ways of doing certain tasks because they were doing the tasks the wrong way all through. Training should be designed in such a manner that skills that are meant to be acquired are learnt in easy and simple steps. This helps those being trained in the workplace have satisfaction that they have been able to master some of the required skills before being engaged in the next step, which may involve mastering more complex skills. The trainer should structure the training in such a manner that simple lear ning methods, which will cause employee satisfaction, are used. Using complex methods that the employees may find difficult may hinder the learning process from taking place, hence, not meeting the objective for training. The employees may therefore become discouraged along the way and give up trying to learn because the lack the motivation that comes as a result of achieving the set goal. If the employees become obsessed with the fact that there are a lot of things that they do not know and they are not able to learn these things through the training that is being offered to them, they may also become rebellious or uncooperative. The employees might also develop a negative attitude towards training. For learning in a workplace to take place effectively, a safe psychological environment is necessary. Such an environment allows the employees to comfortably air their views and opinions without fear of being intimidated or misunderstood. This also, allows the employees to speak openly about issues of concern to them without being unnecessarily concerned about what others or the trainer might think about them. Adams, Cochrane Dunne (2012) suggest that when planning to organize training that deals with sensitive issues such as personal styles and attitudes, it may be wise for the trainer to use an external independent trainer. The trainer, in this case, should be someone who does not work with the employees regularly. This would enhance the learning process because the employees are more open to such a person. The employees are able to voice their concerns more easily without fear of being quoted as having said something that was displeasing to the employer. Openness and participation that is likely to be witnessed in such a setting is very vital to the learning process. Conclusion Training has often been confused with learning but the two are very different. Training is one of the means through which learning take place. However, it is not the only method that ca n be used by trainers to enhance learning within the workplace. There certain considerations that should be put in place if effective learning is to take place through training. Training can be considered as faulty if it is badly designed or badly delivered. It can also be regarded as faulty if it is designed based on a wrong diagnosis of the needs in the workplace. Moreover, it is considered inappropriate in meeting certain learning needs, which can only be met effectively through use of other means such as mentoring. Although the purpose of training remains to be generation of learning outcomes, there is still no single universally acceptable method that is recommended to do this. Two theories have been very useful in the learning that comes as a result of training. The social learning theory and the situated learning have been used by many organizations to help in meeting the training needs in a workplace. The two theories are very important in facilitating effective learning in the workplace. This is because, the focus that the trainer takes when using these two theories in training at the workplace enhance acquisition of the relevant skills through simple and cheap ways such as mentoring and observation. The employees are then able to replicate the modeled behavior. This is better that the conventional methods of training that are usually emphasized at the expense of such simple and effective methods. The social learning theory and the situated theory are therefore very vital theories that trainers can used to facilitate effective training at the workplace. Reference List Adams, J., Cochrane, M., Dunne, L., 2012. Applying Theory to educational  research: an introductory approach with case studies. West Sussex: John Willey Sons Ltd. Bandura, A., 1977. Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. Bandura, A. Walters, R., 1963. Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart Winston. Greeno, J. G., 1998. The Situativi ty of Knowing, Learning, and Research.  American Psychologist, 53(1), 5-26. Hung, D., 2002. Situated cognition and problem-based learning: implications for learning and instruction with technology. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 13(4), 393-415. Leave, J. Wenger, E., 1991. Situated Learning. Legitimate peripheral  participation. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press Miller, N. Dollard, J., 1941. Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven, NJ: Yale University Press. Schell, J. W., Black, R. S., 1997. Situated learning: An inductive case study of a collaborative learning experience. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34, 5-28. 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Typical Course of Study for 10th Graders

Typical Course of Study for 10th Graders By 10th grade, most students have acclimated to life as a high school student. That means they should be primarily independent learners with good time management skills and a sense of personal responsibility for completing their assignments. The goal of  high school coursework for 10th-grade students is to prepare them for life after high school, either as a college student or a member of the workforce. Coursework should also ensure that students are equipped to perform at their best for college entrance exams if secondary education is their goal. Language Arts Most colleges expect a high school graduate to have completed four years of language arts. A typical course of study for 10th-grade language arts will include literature, composition, grammar, and vocabulary. Students will continue to apply the techniques theyve learned from analyzing texts. Tenth-grade literature will likely include American, British, or world literature. The choice may be determined by the homeschool curriculum a student is using.   Some families may also choose to incorporate the literature component with social studies. So a student studying world history in 10th grade would choose titles associated with world or British literature. A student studying U.S. history would choose American literature titles. Students may also analyze short stories, poems, dramas, and myths.  Greek and Roman mythology are popular topics for 10th-graders. Continue to provide students with a variety of writing practice across all subject areas, including science, history, and social studies. Math Most colleges expect four years of high school math credit. A typical course of study for 10th-grade math will have students completing geometry or Algebra II to fulfill their math credit for the year. Students who completed prealgebra in ninth grade will usually take Algebra I in 10th, while students who are strong in math may take an advanced algebra course, trigonometry, or precalculus. For teens who are weak in math or who have special needs, courses such as basic mathematics or consumer or business math can fulfill math credit requirements. 10th Grade Science Options If your student is college-bound, he will likely need three lab science credits. Common 10th-grade science courses include biology, physics, or chemistry. Most students complete chemistry after successfully completing Algebra II. Interest-led science courses may include astronomy, marine biology, zoology, geology, or anatomy and physiology.   Other common topics for 10th-grade science include the characteristics of life, classification, simple organisms (algae, bacteria, and  fungi), vertebrates and invertebrates,  mammals and birds, photosynthesis, cells, protein synthesis,  DNA-RNA, reproduction and growth, and nutrition and digestion. Social Studies Many 10th-grade college-bound students will study United States history during their sophomore year. World history is another option. Homeschool students following a traditional curriculum will explore the Middle Ages. Other alternatives include a U.S. civics and economics course, psychology, world geography, or sociology. Specialized history studies based on a students interests are usually acceptable as well, such as a focus on World War II, European history, or modern wars. A typical course of study may also include prehistoric peoples and the earliest civilizations, ancient civilizations (such as Greece, India, China, or Africa), the  Islamic world, the Renaissance, the rise and fall of monarchies, the French Revolution,  and the Industrial Revolution. Modern history studies should include science and industry, the world wars, the Cold War, the  Vietnam War, the rise and fall of Communism,  the collapse of the Soviet Union, and world interdependence. Electives Electives can include topics such as art, technology, and foreign language, but students can earn elective credit for almost any area of interest. Most 10th graders will begin the study of a foreign language since it is common for colleges to require two years credit for the same language. French and Spanish are standard choices, but almost any language can count toward the two credits. Some colleges even accept American Sign Language.   Drivers education is another excellent option for a high school sophomore since most are 15 or 16 years old and ready to begin driving. The requirements for a drivers education course may vary by state. A defensive driving course can be helpful and may result in an insurance discount.

Gender Considerations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 52

Gender Considerations - Essay Example In any environment that you find students, liking the teacher then it is evident that the class is a combination of both male and female students. The art of completion is present. Students in sick class encourage maximum much participation because they know that one-step mistake he will be among the last (Evans 15). There are completions that in most instances favor the female student involvement. For example food technology, boys find themselves lacking behind because what is being taught suits the opposite gender. The response to text-based learning in a variety of learning scenarios depends on the instrumental situations. The binding of these students together is characterized by the equal participation both in class and field activities while in school (Evans 23). In the pursuit of the concern of this topic, it is important to avoid colliding with some deception that one gender is smarter than the other is. Towards different subjects, the difference in performance is brought about the attitude of the student. Gender is not a limiting factor to the student; instead, they need to be given equal opportunities.

Company Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Company Law - Essay Example This is because ethical policies and codes of practice may only be seen as guidelines and at any given time, a company or a member of the board may do what is more beneficial to them rather than to do what is most ethical. If policies were enough to manage corporate governance, there would be no need for governments and regulatory bodies to make the laws necessary to keep corporate and personal greed in check. For instance, environmental degradation is a very important topic for the world today and governments as well as non governmental organisations are looking at various ways and means by which they can help the environment (Green, 2005). However, corporations often have to be forced through regulations and laws to minimize their impact on the environment (Schulte, 2006). Had a code of practice which encourages social responsibility been enough, no board member of a company could have agreed to a policy of the company which damages the environment regardless of the profits that could be made. It is only when the profits of a company are at risk when it can be made to apply the rules of good corporate governance. For example, Apple Inc. was forced to change the packaging for its famous iPod since Greenpeace objected to the amount of waste material that came with the iPod. Fearing angry customers, Apple altered the packaging to make environmentally friendly (Planque, 2006) When Steve Jobs (the CEO of the company) launched a new version of the product he focused on the subject and said, â€Å"Weve got some new packaging for the new Nano as well. And its 52% less volume. This turns out to be an environmentally great thing. Because it dramatically reduces the amount of fossil fuels we have to spend to move these things around the planet (Planque, 2006, Pg. 1)†. Of course, Apple could have changed the packaging and made it environmentally friendly from the start but only a threat of lost sales moved it to do so.

Problem of Induction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Problem of Induction - Essay Example Human beings may however think of this, as having been caused by previous deeds and in most cases, man cannot overpower the situation. In accepting the happenings around us, it reduces the cost of imagination. Hume describes that when a body is restricted to one planet only having troubles and difficulties, the mind usually links these troubles to other planets that may not even be in existence (Hume 14). I agree because the past events do not affect the future of an individual who has an open mind set to rise above and beyond his or her limitations by learning from the past mistakes to avoid the same mistakes or to improve his or her quality of life. Ideas and thoughts will always depend on the previous attitude and feeling. There are those ideas, which can prove to be stand alone, but in the real sense closely evaluated will indicate that they too are born from the feelings before conception. However similar it may be for sounds entering the ear and colors seen by the eye are norma lly different in comparison. Considering this, the ideas arising from different shades are expected also to be different in nature (Hume 16). Impressions do not always give rise to ideas, however simple they may prove to be. The nature and reality of ideas has contradictions behind it. Bringing these ideas into clear vision and shading some light on them, however, can do away with this. Hume states that in the imagination of man, there is nothing that is freer. It however has power, which is unlimited to separating, mixing, dividing and compounding ideas, though it cannot go beyond the external and internal senses equipping the original ideas, and this implies to all the existing diversities of vision and fiction (Hume 34). In the world, there is nothing considered as chance. Opinion, belief and understanding are much influenced by our ignorance. Hume also states that â€Å"there is certainly a probability, that emanate as a result of superiority chances on any side; and accordingl y, as this superiority rises and surpassesing the opposite chances, the probability get the same increment, and begets still a higher degree or belief or assent to that side, in which we discover the superiority† (Hume 40). Disputes on philosophy are the main blame among the methods of reasoning, to make an effort of disapproving any hypothesis, to the hazardous effects of morality and religion by pretence (Hume 67). Usually opinions made are not false, but the same opinions implemented can lead to dangerous consequences. Though the consequences of action performed casually and ignorantly by men may be questionable, men are not blamed for actions of that nature. These actions however come to an end in them alone, because they are not momentary principled. On the other hand actions performed in a hasty nature may not meet the requirements and can be faulty; men are also not blamed for them. Character in this case is also affected by hasty temper (Hume 68). Liberty however, is i mportant to morality and no moral qualities are caused by liberty. Analogy forms the basis of all the reasoning concerned with matters of facts. This makes people believe that an event leading to some consequences will always be the reason for such consequences even in future. However, the analogy is perfect where the causes prove the same and the deduction made out of it can

Judgemental Forecasting Method

Judgemental Forecasting Method Forecasting is a significant tool for many different sectors as it makes predictions on the future by looking at historical data, present data and the analysing of trends. However, some business forecasting is not done at a good level, as some business people confuse it with goals and planning. Forecasting, Goals and Planning, these three differ significantly, Forecasting is trying to calculate the future a specific as possible, by using historical data, present data and the analysing of trend, Goals for business is that the business would like to happen for them in the near future. Goals are usually done with lacking any planning or forecasting, as the business looks at their competitors and they either want to match them or exceed them in the market. Planning is looking at the forecasting and goals and deciding the best action that will make the business forecasting match their goals. As the business world is moving more into analysing data, forecasting is and will be a vital part of decision-making for the management team, as the forecasting can help with short term, medium term and long term forecasting. When a business has a lack of past data or the business is launching a new product, the business can still use forecasting, and they will use Judgement forecasting. Judgement forecasting is the use of opinion, intuitive judgment and subjective probability estimates. Judgment forecasting has few methods that can be used to get the best statistical analysis and there are Statistical surveys, Scenario building, Delphi methods, Technology forecasting and forecast by analogy. The Judgement forecasting has increasingly been recognised as a science, and over the years the quality of Judgement forecasting has been improving as the approach has been well structured and efficient. But it is important to understand that Judgement forecasting has not been perfected as it still has limitations. Judgment forecast depend on human cognition which has limitations, For example, a limited memory may render recent events more important than they actually are and may ignore momentous events from the more distant past; or a limited attention span may result in important information being missed, or a misunderstanding of causal relationships may lead to erroneous inference.1 This example shows that human memory can affect the judgment forecast in a negative way, and misunderstanding can lead to wishful thinking or optimistic view which can lead to faulty forecast, and in the case of launching a new product, the marketing and salesman teams will have an optimistic view for their lunch so they will not forecast its failure Beware of the enthusiasm of your marketing and sales colleagues2. In the case of judgment forecasting without any domain knowledge and only a set of time series data is used, getting a forecast will be very hard, as in the Hogath and makridais (1981) in their paper, where they have examined around 175 papers where there was judgment forecasting, they have approached a result of that quantitative models outperform judgmental forecasts3, in their research they have seen that judgment has been linked with systematic biases and errors, as some people were looking for patterns and linking together clues where there was none as the process was random. Judgment forecasting has been compared to many different kinds of forecasting such as statistical methods, and many different types of research conclude different findings of the accuracy of the two methods. In the paper of Lawrence (1985) and (1986) where the paper compares the accuracy of quantities model and judgment forecasting, the paper has come to a conclusion that demonstrated judgmental forecasting to be at least as accurate as statistical techniques4, also in the paper show that the standard deviation of the error of the statistical method was greater than the judgment forecast error. The paper also shows that if judgment forecasting was added in the statistical method, better sets of forecasting can be predicted and the level of error would decrease. In the study by Makridakis S and Winkler R (1983) it shows that there are few ways to combine the judgement and statistical forecasting. In the study it says that there is two way to join the two forecasting methods, the first is Concurrent Incorporation where to get the final forecasting both methods will have to be used to get the averaging procedure. The second way is a Posterior Incorporation which includes the judgmental revision of statistically derived forecasts5   this second way tries to improve forecasting by allowing the judgement forecasting to see and access the results of the statistical forecasting. After many years of research in the area of forecasting, Judgment forecasting improves when greater domain knowledge and more up to date information included, therefore by using this new information, judgment approach can then be adjusted and producing an improved forecast. By using a well structured and systematic approach, it helps to decrease the undesirable effects of the limitations of the forecast. By well structuring the approach it will make the forecasting task clear, and a good understanding of the structure is important to avoid unclear and uncertain terms. The method that is well structured that can be used for the judgment forecasting is the Delphi methods. The Delphi method is the use of experts opinions and judgment in the specific field to predict the expectation in that field. The Delphi method is respect method as it only looks at the opinions of the experts in their field and allows them to be anonymous at all time, therefore there is not influenced by their social and political pressure in their prediction, and all experts opinions are weighted equally so no one prediction is superior to another. But like any other approach, the Delphi method also has its limitations, the method is time-consuming, therefore, the experts might be discouraged to join the study or they will not contribute fully at all time of the approach. Adding domain knowledge to the judgement forecasting can be used fully for the prediction. The knowledge of the time series and further information which explains the historical performance of the series can have a minor influence on the forecast or a huge impact on the variable of the data. The domain knowledge represents the un-modelled module of the series. The un-modelled module is very important as it can be included into the statistical forecast to reach better results for the forecast. Many studies have been looking at judgement forecasting with the addition of domain knowledge, a study by Brown (1996) which looked at earning per share forecasting. The study shows that the forecasting of the management team was more accurate than the analysts predictions and the statistical model forecasting. In the study, it shows that the inside information which is the domain knowledge of the firm lead to the accuracy of the management team forecast. In the study, it showed that it did not matter if the statistical model was complex or simple as the management team and analysts got a higher accuracy level because of the domain knowledge the management team holds. In a study by Sanders (1992) where it compared the preference of judgement methods to statistical forecasting, the study compared both methods by the use of an artificial time series. The study looked at 38 business students, the students were thought some different ways of statistical and judgement forecasting and every student had two-time series and past data. The task for the students was to use all the information they had to forecast the next 12 steps ahead. The students were given one week to produce their judgement forecasting, then they were given statistical forecasting of the series, and then they were asked to review their forecast and do any adjustment if needed. The study has used the mean absolute percentage error to assess the forecasting results, and the mean percentage error was applied to calculate the level of bias in the forecast. The results of the study have similar results as the past studies did, as statistical methods outperformed judgment forecasting in all -time series but not the low noise step function. And the more complex the data pattern got the worse the judgement forecast became. The study clearly shows that the statistical methods had better forecasting in the high noise level data, and an increase in noise level has worsened off the judgement forecasting, the study says this is due because as the high noise increases it becomes harder for an individual to detect any kind of patterns. While judgement forecasting didnt perform well during a high noise, it did significantly well in the low noise function. Looking at the bias in the study, it shows that at a low noise series the judgement revision bias is low in the series, while for a high noise series it increases the bias in the series. The main point of the study by Sanders (1992) is that judgement amendments with statistical methods can have great advantage for a low noise series with a specific data patterns, and it will do better when statistical method are applied blindly to a time series, also at a low noise series the judgement revision bias is low in the series, but in a high noise series the judgment forecasting is not the right approach comparing to a statistical forecasting and in some instances the bias level in the judgement forecasting was greater than the statistical forecasting in a high noise series. Sanders approach of the judgement forecasting is not overwhelm approved in the forecasting filed, as it has many critics wondering about its efficiency, as the sanders approach for judgment forecasting does not use the experts opinions on the field that is going to be forecasted but uses the opinion and judgment of normal people who may have not have studied the field and have a small knowledge about it, therefore, there judgement would not be the best to use to create a prediction from it. Judgemental forecasting is an important tool in the business today but it has to be used right, as some business people confuse it with goals and planning. When doing a judgmental forecasting the aims and the purpose of the forecasting have to be clear and well structured to get better results. But like any forecasting method, Judgemental forecasting has its limitations and it is up to the person who is performing the forecast to make sure they are at a minimum. To get a better prediction it is important to try and increase the domain knowledge of the series as it has been shown in the Brown (1996) study, as the management team outperformed the statistical analysis due to the inside information of the firm and because they are the experts in that field. Also to improve the judgement forecasting as it has been shown in the Sanders (1992) have found if judgment forecasting is done with a revision of statistical methods, the forecast can be more accurate in a low noise series and with a less level of bias. Judgmental forecasting is not a perfect method to predict the outcome of a specific time series but it is a good point to start. References: Rob J Hyndman, (2013) Chapter: Judgmental Forecasts: Beware of limitations. Book: Forecasting: principles and practice R. Fildes and P. Goodwin (2007b). Good and bad judgment in forecasting: lessons from four companies. Foresight: The International Journal of Applied Forecasting 8, 5-10. Hogarth Makridakis, 1981 R.M. Hogarth, S. Makridakis Forecasting and planning: An evaluation Management Science, 27 (1981), pp. 115-138 Lawrence et al., 1986M. Lawrence, R. Edmundson, M. OConnor The accuracy of combining judgmental and statistical forecasts, Management Science, 32 (1986), pp. 1521-1532 Makridakis S and Winkler R (1983) Averages of forecasts: Some empirical results. Mgmt Sci. 29, 987-996 Sanders, 1992  N.R. Sanders  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Accuracy of judgmental forecasts: A comparison   Omega, 20 (3) (1992), p. 353 Brown, 1996 L. Brown Analyst forecasting errors and their implications for security analysts: An alternative perspective Financial Analysts Journal, 52 (1) (1996), pp. 40-47 Lawrence, M., Goodwin, P., OConnor, M., ÃÆ'-nkal, D. (2006). Judgmental forecasting: A review of progress over the last 25years. International Journal of Forecasting, 22(3), 493-518.

Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter - Character of Pearl :: Scarlet Letter essays

Pearl is The Scarlet Letter Pearl is the living embodiment of the scarlet letter because she forces Hester and Dimmesdale to accept their sins. The Puritan society looks at Pearl as a child of the devil, and a black hearted girl because she is the result of sin. Hester and Dimmesdale are both in the same situation in Pearl's eyes. Pearl wants Hester to realize that she is not the worst person in the world before she removes the scarlet letter. Pearl wants Dimmesdale to accept his sin, and be part of their life publicly. Pearl is all that Hester has in her life. She says that Pearl: "keeps me here in life! Pearl punishes me too! See ye not, she is the scarlet letter, only capable of being loved, and so endowed with a millionfold the Power of retribution of my sin?" (Hawthorne 100). Hawthorne shows that Pearl represents the scarlet letter not only symbolically but literally as well. Hester says that Pearl is the living scarlet letter, and causes Hester more anguish than the scarlet letter itself. Pearl is only difficult when she sees her mother trying to flee her sins the wrong way. This is why Pearl makes her mother keep the scarlet letter. Hester knows that she did a bad thing, but she does not feel that she is a good person, and will not feel that way until she accepts her sins. Hester wants to run away from the situation, leaving her sin behind her, and live content with Dimmesdale as a sinner with another sinner. Pearl will not let that happen because she knows that by leaving, Hester is escaping her sins and living life thinking that she is a bad person. Hester talks of leaving with Dimmesdale: "Let it suffice, that the clergyman resolved to flee, and not alone. ....(Dimmesdale) "But now-since I am irrevocably doomed-wherefore should I not snatch the solace allowed to the condemned culprit before his execution? Or, if this be the path to a better life, as Hester would persuade me, I surely give up no fairer prospect by pursuing it!" (Hawthorne 184). Hester desires to leave the world that she is a sinner in, and live a new life. Dimmesdale knows that he is going to die soon, so why not leave the place of his sin and go with Hester to a better life. Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter - Character of Pearl :: Scarlet Letter essays Pearl is The Scarlet Letter Pearl is the living embodiment of the scarlet letter because she forces Hester and Dimmesdale to accept their sins. The Puritan society looks at Pearl as a child of the devil, and a black hearted girl because she is the result of sin. Hester and Dimmesdale are both in the same situation in Pearl's eyes. Pearl wants Hester to realize that she is not the worst person in the world before she removes the scarlet letter. Pearl wants Dimmesdale to accept his sin, and be part of their life publicly. Pearl is all that Hester has in her life. She says that Pearl: "keeps me here in life! Pearl punishes me too! See ye not, she is the scarlet letter, only capable of being loved, and so endowed with a millionfold the Power of retribution of my sin?" (Hawthorne 100). Hawthorne shows that Pearl represents the scarlet letter not only symbolically but literally as well. Hester says that Pearl is the living scarlet letter, and causes Hester more anguish than the scarlet letter itself. Pearl is only difficult when she sees her mother trying to flee her sins the wrong way. This is why Pearl makes her mother keep the scarlet letter. Hester knows that she did a bad thing, but she does not feel that she is a good person, and will not feel that way until she accepts her sins. Hester wants to run away from the situation, leaving her sin behind her, and live content with Dimmesdale as a sinner with another sinner. Pearl will not let that happen because she knows that by leaving, Hester is escaping her sins and living life thinking that she is a bad person. Hester talks of leaving with Dimmesdale: "Let it suffice, that the clergyman resolved to flee, and not alone. ....(Dimmesdale) "But now-since I am irrevocably doomed-wherefore should I not snatch the solace allowed to the condemned culprit before his execution? Or, if this be the path to a better life, as Hester would persuade me, I surely give up no fairer prospect by pursuing it!" (Hawthorne 184). Hester desires to leave the world that she is a sinner in, and live a new life. Dimmesdale knows that he is going to die soon, so why not leave the place of his sin and go with Hester to a better life.

Gender, Authority and Dissent in English Mystical Writers Essay

The Book of Margery Kempe certainly provoked an intense amount of controversy, not least in the present but in her own time as well; a debate that centred on her position as a mystic. This position entailed having true knowledge of God, to work towards a union with him where they would essentially become one. Margery Kempe, at the very least views herself to be one of God’s vessels through which He can allow her to experience spiritual visions and feelings. It is in her book that Kempe conveys through words what she considered to be the most significant of these experiences, in order that those who read them would derive ‘great comfort and solace’. It is Kempe’s ‘individual and brilliant adaptation of what was originally a discipline for cloistered elites’1 that draws attention to her. Yet it is this individual voice, the style she uses, and her firm relationship with the market world that questions her experiences of higher contemplation. Certainly Kempe does not conform to the solitary life of a conventional mystic, much like Richard Rolle’s statement of ‘running off’ into the woods, and at one point she is even â€Å"sorrowful and grieving† because she has no company. Yet she uses many of her interactions with others to confirm her position as a mystic. She visits the revered mystic Julian of Norwich to seek advice as to whether her visions were genuine or not (Chapter 18), and receives confirmation from Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury. Essentially what it has been suggested that Kempe experiences is a higher level of contemplation – positive mysticism. This was the search for God through human imagery, which ‘insists on the physical as a legitimate means of access to the spiritual’.2 Certainly one of the standard patterns in mystical experience were the feelings of love between the mystic and God which is often described as fire, hence Rolle’s ‘Incendium Amoris’. Kempe notes that there was an ‘unquenchable fire of love which burnt full sore in her soul’, and that Christ had set her soul ‘all on fire with love’. Thus the intensity of her visions can not be brought into question as ‘she certainly shares with [the tradition] a mystical sense of God at work in human experiences’.3 These human experiences included her own body, as she suffers illness and indulgences in self-mutilation, wearing a haircloth, fasting and even biting her hand so violently that she has to be tied down. However, the visions that Kempe experiences, as mystics viewed them as gifts, are not a product of studious praying and meditating. In most ways what she conveys is an imitation of what many female European mystics experienced, like Bridget of Sweden and Dorothy of Montou or Catherine of Siena. She seeks justification for her mystical standing by linking herself closely to others and, though illiterate receives much of her inspiration from such mystical texts as ‘Incendium Amoris’, ‘Stimulus Amoris’, and Walter Hilton’s ‘Scale of Perfection’. However, as Glasscoe has pointed out, her spiritual experiences were not an easy thing for Kempe to meditate on. Whereas Hilton focused on inner spiritual growth, Kempe can only explain her transcende nce through what was familiar to her – the body.4 She even says that ‘sometimes, what she understood physically was to be understood spiritually’. Thus, whereas her visions may at many points seem extreme and even distasteful it does not necessarily mean that she was experiencing anything less than what is considered mystical. What also inspires Kempe, whilst also bringing into question her status as a mystic is the fact that she was a woman who was firmly placed in the world. David Aers describes her as an independent businesswoman, who before her initial vision was active in the market economy, investing money, organising public work and employing men.5 Mysticism was overwhelmingly contemplative, and there was not much spoke about the ‘active life’, with the exception of Walter Hilton’s positive description of the ‘mixed life’. However instead of accepting that she is â€Å"too busy with worldly occupations that must be attended to’6, like Hilton proposed, Kempe integrates the economic world into her mysticism. Shelia Delany proposed that in her work ‘one is constantly aware of the cash nexus’. 7 This is true in the sense that Kempe even strikes a deal with Jesus, in the sense that he becomes the mediator between Kempe’s social responsibilities as a wife and her desire to lead the spiritual life. Through Christ’s help she can lead the chaste life by buying off her husband, hence paying off all his debts (Chapter 11. p.60). Atkinson, commented that what Kempe creates is a ‘God, who controlled the economy of salvation, [and] functioned as a great banker of a merchant prince†.8 Also Kempe’s drive for ‘more’ is also indicative of her market drive values, in the same sense that she sees that by giving charity to her fellow Christians she will receive in heaven ‘double reward’. This unusual market driven line of thought is not the only factor that distinguishes her from her predecessors. Her style of writing is different and her visions are certainly unique. She actively takes part in many of the experiences, using speech, as Carol Coulson has suggested to inject herself into the holy narrative,9 even at one point acting as the handmaiden to God, and as a replacement to the biblical figure – Mary Magdalene. Her first vision is also very personal, and in some ways domesticated. Jesus is said to have appeared ‘in the likeness of a man†¦clad in a mantle of purple silk, sitting upon her bedside’. The Incarnation is taken to the extreme, where her visions sometimes sit outside the historical moments of the Bible and become part of her own world. Despite distancing herself by calling herself the ‘creature’ throughout the text many have accused her work of being self-absorbed – ‘I have told you before that you are a singular lover of God, and therefore you shall have a singular love in heaven, a singular reward and a singular honour’. Certainly her relations with God are very personal, and in many ways conveyed in sexual terms, as when Christ says to her ‘Daughter, you greatly desire to see me, and you may boldly, when you are in bed, take me to you as your wedded husband’. However, again this ‘great pomp and pride’, is said to emerge from her experience as a female within an urban class which fostered within her a strong sense of class identity and self-value.10 A self-value that she never really agrees to give up, thus because she refuses to traditionally quieten the self, Kempe does not sit comfortably as a mystic. Similarly she never really abandons her desire for worldly goods. She even admits in the first chapters that after her initial vision she refused to give up her worldly leisure’s, and still took delight in earthly things. This earthiness continues throughout the book. At one point she explains that she was embarrassed ‘because she was not dressed as she would have liked to have been for lack of money, and wishing to go about unrecognised until she could arrange a loan she held a handkerchief in front of her face’. This embarrassment does not hold well with the lower stage of mysticism in which the visionary is to dispel themselves of all earthly matters so that their soul is open to heaven. Her mysticism is driven to accumulate. She refuses to ‘be content with the goods that God has sent her’, whilst ‘ever [desiring] more and more’. From God she can attain spiritual status, whilst through her (father’s) social position she maintains earthly standing, thus she is caught between two (masculine) worlds. As David Aers has noted the market world never really receives rebuke in her mystical world, in fact it remains a natural part of it.11 Yet to see her as the victim of a capitalist society is, as Glasscoe maintains, to ignore her avowed purpose.12 Yet it is hard to ignore the element of hysteria in her work. She certainly experiences the traditional mystical dilemma that her visions will never be truly conveyed to those who stand outside it, that ‘herself could never tell the grace that she felt, it was so heavenly, so high above her reason and her bodily wits†¦that she might never express it within her world like she felt it in her soul’. However her Gift of Tears, in which she cries ‘abundantly and violently’, break quite brutally this silence of contemplation. It may be however that her loud screams and cries convey her devotion and justify her higher state. Certainly tradition showed that mystics ‘thought of themselves as vehicles for suffering and their broken voices and lacerated bodies reflected the stress under which they laboured’.13 Her crying brought attention to her being, even in her own time when crowds flocked to see her, becoming somewhat of a spectacle. These tears are almost a sign of her fertility in her contemplative life, and also justified in the Bible – Psalm cxxvi, 5-6 says that ‘they that sow in tears shall reap in joy. He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Her tears therefore, although extreme and lead many throughout her work to rebuke her, are essentially a sign of grace demonstrating that the Incarnation for Kempe was an ever-present reality.14 Ursula Peters suggested that female mystics, through mysticism â€Å"turned inward and [discovered] ways to describe their own experiences†.15 In fact the role Kempe plays as a woman is very important to her whole mystical experience, and in some ways may even bring it into question. In her experiences with God she plays the wife, the mother, the sister and the daughter. When her husbands exclaims that she is ‘no good wife’ it again demonstrates that Kempe struggled between two worlds, that of the spiritual and that of her family commitments. St Bernard once proclaimed that natural human feeling doesn’t have to be suppressed but channelled into God, and in some ways this is exactly what Kempe achieves. By using the idea that she is a holy vessel she is able to assert herself as a woman in the highly competitive world quite drastically. She refuses to abandon her personality and quite forcefully, hence her adamant desire to be chaste, asserts who she is. The Church even attempted to denounce her as a Lollard, which shows that she was a threatening (female) voice and the only way to quieten her was to denounce her as a heretic. Rather than being a mystical treatise, The Book of Margery Kempe is a narrative account, almost a story, or even an autobiography as many have stated it to be, in which she attempts to adopt the contemplative ideal of piety.16 In fact it is more than mysticism, it is the experiences of a woman trying to find her voice in a masculine social world, and the only way that she can achieve this is through having spiritual authority. Certainly her devotion can not be questioned, and she can’t even predict herself when the intensity of Christ’s Passion will overwhelm her, be it ‘sometime in the church, sometime in the street, sometime in the chamber, sometime in the field’. Yet her extreme metaphors and use of language certainly bring into doubt her status as a mystic. As Susan Dickman has suggested prayers and visions certainly occupy the text, yet they are embedded in a larger structure17, namely how she was ‘painfully drawn and steered, [her pilgrimage acting as a metaphor for her mystical journey] to enter the way of perfection’. Certainly ‘painfully’ is an apt description, leading many to criticise her as a charlatan, a ‘terrible hysteric’ and even one who was possessed by the devil. Yet this account is from a very independent and highly spirited woman, who although struggled with her identity and sought the higher state to explore that larger structure of herself through God, was deeply devoted to her faith. In the end her piety was very ordinary, it is her style of conveyance however, the lack of the abstract vocabulary of Julian of Norwich, Rolle and the Cloud author18 that brings her status as a mystic int o controversy. Bibliography Aers, David., Community Gender and Individual Identity in English Writing, 1360-1430 (London, 1988) Bancroft, A., The Luminous Vision: Six Medieval Mystics and their Teachings (London, 1982). Evans, Ruth and Johnson, Lesley (eds.)., Feminist Readings in Middle English Literature: The Wife of Bath and All Her Sect (London, 1994) Klapisch-Zuber, C (ed.)., Silences of the Middle-Ages (London 1992),447 Glasscoe, Marion (ed.)., The Medieval Mystical Tradition (Exeter, 1980) http://www.anamchara.com/mystics/kempe.htm http://www.ccel.org/h/hilton/ladder/ladder-PART_I.html http://www.sterling.holycross.edu/departments/visarts/projects/kempe/index.html Knowles, D., The English Mystical Tradition London (London, 1961) Meale, Carol. M., (ed.)., Women and Literature in Britain 1150-1500 (Cambridge, 1993) 1 C. Klapisch-Zuber, Silences of the Middle Ages (London 1992),160 2 J.Long., ‘Mysticism and hysteria: the histories of Margery Kempe and Anna O’, in Feminist Readings in Middle English Literature, ed. R.Evans et al. (London, 1994),100 3 M. Glasscoe, English Medieval Mystics: Games of Faith (London, 1993),268. 4 M. Glasscoe, English Medieval Mystics: Games of Faith (London, 1993), 268. 5 D. Aers, Community, Gender and Individual Identity – English Writing 1360-1430 (London, 1988), 112. 6 http://www.ccel.org/h/hilton/ladder/ladder-PART_I.html 7 J.Long., ‘Mysticism and hysteria: the histories of Margery Kempe and Anna O’, in Feminist Readings in Middle English Literature, ed. R.Evans et al. (London, 1994), 87-111 8 D. Aers, Community, Gender and Individual Identity – English Writing 1360-1430 (London, 1988), 106 9 http://www.anamchara.com/mystics/kempe.html 10 D. Aers, Community, Gender and Individual Identity – English Writing 1360-1430 (London, 1988),115. 11 Ibid. 12 M. Glasscoe, English Medieval Mystics: Games of Faith (London, 1993), 275. 13 C. Klapisch-Zuber, Silences of the Middle Ages (London 1992),446 14 M. Glasscoe, English Medieval Mystics: Games of Faith (London, 1993), 276. 15 C. Klapisch-Zuber, Silences of the Middle Ages (London 1992),447 16 http://www.anamchara.com/mystics/kempe.htm 17 S. Dickman., ‘Margery Kempe and The English Devotional Tradition’, in The Medieval Mystical Tradition, ed. M. Glasscoe (Exeter, 1980), 156-172 18 M. Glasscoe, English Medieval Mystics: Games of Faith (London, 1993), 272.

John Marshalls Court rulings essays

John Marshalls Court rulings essays Hamilton was a federalist and served as the secretary of the treasury in the 1890s. He was a strong supporter of a centralized federal government. He also advocated loose interpretation of the u.s. constitution and the use of the elastic clause. Which was an ambiguous power of the federal government stating that congress can do what it is proper and necessary john Marshalls epitomizing of these Hamiltonian principals and philosophies can be seen in several of his court rulings. Such as, McCulloch vs. Maryland, Dartmouth college vs. Woodward, Gibbons vs. Ogden, and Cohens vs. Virginia. In the case Mcculloch vs. Maryland in 1819, Maryland brought a suit against McCulloch and bands him for refusing to pay a tax on the federal bank. Marshall said, the power to tax implies the power to destroy. Marshalls ruling sanctified the federal governments user of implied powers. His decision was in favor of the federal bank. It established the national supremacy over state governments. It also paved the way for vast expansion of federal power in the future. In the case of Dartmouth college vs. Woodward in 1919 as well, Dartmouth was telling its case on how they had been chartered in 1769 as a private school to train missionaries and native Americans in new Hampshire. Republican members of the board of trustees sought to have the state legislature convert the school into a new state university. The state court supported contention that the state had the right to alter the schools charter. The courts ruling was in favor of the republican board members. Daniel Webster appealed to the Supreme Court and Marshall overturned the state courts decision. This set the precedent for the Gosceant contract. It also set a precedent for the supreme courts power to overturn the state courts decisions. Which again had strengthened the central governments. In 1824 the Cohens were arrested for selling l...

english 115 Essay

english 115 Essay english 115 Essay English 115/76 "Wal-Mart is all about the money" "At Wal-Mart we have a 10 foot attitude." I will too if I steal my employees money. At the Wal-Mart stores they do not only have always low prices, they also have always low wages for their employees. They have a very well structured program to control and train their employees to make them believe that Wal-Mart is a great place to work. I t is crucial that the very first day that you start working at Wal-Mart they play they training-brainwashing videos. Some of these videos consist of telling you that you made a good choice and that you can make a difference by working at Wal-Mart. The most important institution in American society are school, work and family. Interestingly, Wal-Mart focuses on these fundamental institutions to brainwash their employees by using very philosophical phases. "You do not need to have a career to work at Wal-Mart, at Wal-Mart you can start your own career." This is one of the famous phases they use to brainwash people. They make their employees believe that the work they perform at Wal-Mart is enough to call it a career. They imply that you do not need to go to school to get a career; here at Wal-Mart we make you feel that you have a career. Like in most career you have to work hard to get through and eventually obtain a degree. At Wal-Mart you work very hard and never get through or earn any kind of degree or a better wages. It is true that you do not need a career to work at Wal-Mart because if you had one you would not be seeking for a job at Wal-Mart. It is not true that you can start your own career at Wal-Mart because if you want to have a real career, for that you will go to school. "You do not need anyone to speak for yourself, at Wal-Mart you can speak for yourself." This phase refers to a video on Unions. In this video we learn of how expensive and unnecessary it is to waste your money on having someone to represent you. It explains that if employees would have a Union if will make it u npleasant and difficult to work together. It also explains that the employee would not be able to communicate directly with their supervisors. Wal-Mart wants to make your job easy and pleasant for you, so, that is why they have an "open door" a free way of communication. The Union Organization will guarantee workers better wages and knows what are the workers' rights. It is as if we had a lawyer to represent us in legal matter. Wal-Mart does not want people to be represented by the Union because that means that they will have to pay more money for their employees and would be able to brainwash their employees. "At Wal-Mart we are a family, and like a family, we care." Wal-Mart wants their employees to feel that they have a family working environment to make them happily do everything they want .

Essay question Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 8

Question - Essay Example (Laudon, & J. P. (2011) These management reports are used by supervisors and management in the middle level. The reports help managers make routine decisions in business to solve problems. An example is the sales management system and the personnel/HRM system. Decision Support System (DSS)- as the name suggests, this system is used by managers to help them make decisions in situations where the outcomes of a decision are uncertain. (Nagpal, 2011).  Therefore, this system uses techniques and tools to collect the necessary information, analyze the choices and alternatives available to solve a particular problem by producing models and projections. This system uses external data to give solutions to a problem. An example is the Group Decision support system (GDSS) and the spreadsheet model. Executive Support System-this system involves collection and analysis of important information-both internal and external in the business. It is used by the management at the senior level and this helps them make decisions that are strategic to the business. Office Automation Systems- this system is designed to improve the efficiency and productivity of the employees that are involved in processing of information and data. An example is the Microsoft Office system. (Laudon & J. P.2011) Knowledge Management Systems- these systems aid in the creation and sharing of information in businesses. These systems are normally used in a business set up where its employees can develop new ideas and expertise that can create more opportunities by sharing the new ideas to other people in the business. The transactions in a business are supposed to be managed efficiently, keeping in mind that the performance of a business organisation relies on work coordination. (Nagpal, 2011).  Information technology has eased the communication speed and improved the

Managing people (case study - King Fahad hospital) Personal Statement

Managing people (case study - King Fahad hospital) - Personal Statement Example It was a sunny Wednesday morning, when I was walking in the corridor of the hospital to attend one of my patients, while walking I realized I 'd a stiff back that day and my job demanded lot of mechanical work so it wasn't any good for me. But my happy go lucky nature and my attitude of taking problems light helped me again that day and I made my entry in the intensive care unit almost completely forgetting my pain. In the ICU when I reached to a patient REHMAAN, a nice man though but very disappointed with his health, I gave him a routinely check up and then guided the ward boy to do the needful so as the treatment is well in place. And after analyzing few more patients I headed towards my cabin to take a small rest bout. While resting I heard a sharp voice as if someone dropped the medicine tray and all the bottles broke down, being a senior in that wing it becomes my responsibility to keep track of such incidents and reach out for any kind of help. As soon as I came out of cabin I saw Ryan lying down on ground holding his left arm with right hand and the medicine tray was near his right shoulder. All bottles were broken and drug stains were all over. Ryan was crying in pain, and was breathing very heavily as he has this problem of anxiety at times, I tried to help him to sit against the wall but he being a healthy guy it was a difficult task for me alone to do it. I tried to calm him down a bit but his breath was really going very abnormal, I got him a glass of water from he merely had a sip as he was not feeling comfortable at all. At the same time I required to make sure that calling any wad boys for help should not result in attention degrade for patients, so after making Ryan sit against the wall I went into the adjacent ICU and quickly analyzed the current scenario like who all patients need extra care and who are almost